The Evolution Of Political Campaigns: A Historical Perspective

Political campaigning has evolved over the years, with the first modern campaign often described as William Ewart Gladstone's Midlothian campaign in 1878–80. In the United States, the first exposure to a true campaign occurred during the second presidential election in 1796, when John Adams and Thomas Jefferson had to comply with the public's opposition to outspoken campaigning and direct appeals for votes. Since then, campaigning methods have drastically changed, with the introduction of television playing a significant role in the modern campaign landscape. Today, political campaigns are characterized by a range of strategies, including televised debates, door-to-door canvassing, and the use of social media, all aimed at influencing decision-making and seeking support from voters.

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The first modern political campaign

In the 19th century, American presidential candidates rarely travelled or gave speeches in support of their candidacies. However, William McKinley and his campaign manager, Mark Hanna, a Cleveland businessman and Republican powerbroker, embarked on a systematic nationwide effort to secure the votes of Republican delegates. They campaigned under the slogan "The People Against the Bosses", emphasising McKinley's decision not to broker deals with the era's political bosses. McKinley's campaign was also the first to utilise a large budget, with Hanna pioneering many modern campaign techniques with a $3.5 million budget. McKinley's campaign was further aided by his experience as a lawyer and his time in the Union Army during the American Civil War.

McKinley's messaging was consistent and optimistic, focusing on national unity and reconciliation in the post-Civil War era. He quoted George Washington, saying, "There should be no North, no South, no East, no West — but a common country". McKinley's message was effective, increasing political involvement and broadening his support base. Through this messaging, he linked the Republicans with unity and waged a campaign of memory, associating Bryan's tone and the Democrats with the latter's secessionist stance during the Civil War.

The 1896 campaign was also notable for its financial disparity, with McKinley's campaign vastly outspending that of his opponent, William Jennings Bryan. Bryan's progressive policies alienated Democratic donors, and without significant funding, he was unable to extend his political outreach. McKinley's campaign, on the other hand, funded rallies, speeches, torchlight parades, and hundreds of millions of pamphlets attacking Bryan and praising McKinley.

In conclusion, the 1896 William McKinley presidential campaign is considered the first modern campaign due to its organised and systematic nature, effective messaging, and innovative fundraising and spending strategies.

The role of the media

Providing Information and Shaping Perceptions

The media plays a crucial role in providing voters with information about candidates, their policies, and campaign events. This information helps shape public perceptions and can influence voter behavior. Media coverage can also create a "bandwagon effect," amplifying the impact of a candidate's success or failure. Additionally, the media can set the political agenda by choosing to cover certain issues or events over others, making them more prominent in the public eye and influencing how people decide to vote.

Partisan Media and Bias

The rise of partisan media outlets, such as Fox News and MSNBC, presents a distinct political viewpoint to their audiences. While research on the effects of partisan news has produced mixed results, there is evidence that it can shift people's opinions about candidates and increase negative views of opposing candidates. The media has also been accused of bias in their coverage, with critics alleging that biased media coverage can alter election outcomes. However, in some cases, the media's efforts to maintain balance can create false equivalencies between candidates.

Social Media and Digital Influence

The advent of social media has significantly impacted political campaigns. Platforms like Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube provide new channels for political advertising and engagement. Social media can amplify messages, reinforce partisan divides, and quickly spread information (or misinformation) about political figures, potentially influencing public perception and voter behavior. Social media also allows politicians to connect directly with their audience and target specific groups with tailored advertisements using collected data.

Traditional Media and Advertising

Traditional media, such as television and print, continue to play a significant role in political campaigns. Television advertising, in particular, has been the subject of research, with studies finding that it can increase knowledge about candidates and persuade voters. Cable television, with its commentary and partisan programming, can also shape viewers' predispositions toward certain parties.

Journalistic Influence

Journalists and news organizations can influence elections by choosing which stories to publish or highlight. In competitive 24/7 news cycles, the drive for traffic and attention can lead to disproportionate coverage of certain candidates or issues. This was evident in the case of Donald Trump's presidential campaign, where his pre-existing fame and ability to generate controversy resulted in extensive media coverage, providing him with the equivalent of massive advertising buys without the associated costs.

Campaign messaging

Historical Context:

The evolution of campaign messaging in the United States began with the country's early elections. In the late 18th century, during the second presidential election in 1796, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, the first political opposition party's nominee, had to refrain from outspoken campaigning and direct appeals for votes due to public opposition. However, by 1800, Jefferson's supporters employed smear tactics and paid the press to publish anti-Federalist articles, marking the emergence of negative campaigning.

Emergence of Modern Campaigning:

The first modern campaign is often attributed to William Ewart Gladstone's Midlothian campaign in 1878-1880, with earlier proto-modern examples from the 19th century. The 1896 William McKinley presidential campaign also laid the groundwork for contemporary campaigns. During this period, candidates began to travel and deliver speeches, a significant shift from the passive campaigning of earlier years.

Role of Media:

The invention of new media technologies significantly influenced campaign messaging. The introduction of television in the 20th century transformed campaigning, with the first televised presidential debate between John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon in 1960. This new medium shifted the focus to candidates' appearances and skills in front of the camera, leading to extensive training for contemporary candidates before television appearances.

Campaign Strategies:

Over time, various campaign strategies have been employed, including catchy jingles, political cartoons, and attack ads. Candidates use these tactics to criticise opponents and create a lasting impression on voters. Partisan newspapers and commercial publishers also played a role, openly favouring certain candidates and slanting news coverage to influence public opinion.

Messaging in Modern Campaigns:

In modern political campaigns, messaging plays a central role in influencing voters. Candidates develop consistent, simple messages that resonate with voters, such as Barack Obama's message of "change" in his 2008 campaign. They also adapt their messages to capture the middle, targeting moderate voters who make up a significant portion of the electorate. Additionally, campaigns utilise get-out-the-vote phone calls, door-to-door canvassing, and other methods to increase voter turnout and support for their candidates.

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Campaign tactics

Political campaigning has a long history, with the first modern campaign often described as William Ewart Gladstone's Midlothian campaign in 1878–80. However, the tactics used in these campaigns have evolved over time, influenced by advancements in technology and changing societal norms. Here are some common tactics used in political campaigns:

Messaging and Branding:

Crafting a clear, concise, and memorable message is crucial for any political campaign. The message should resonate with the target audience and be repeated consistently to create a lasting impression on voters. For instance, Barack Obama's successful campaign in 2008 centred around the simple yet powerful message of "change". Campaigns also involve creating a distinct brand, including a logo, colour scheme, and high-quality photographs, to help voters visually identify and recognize the candidate.

Grassroots Organizing:

Building a solid base of supporters, volunteers, and donors is essential for a successful campaign. This involves door-to-door canvassing, phone banking, and other grassroots efforts to engage directly with voters and spread the campaign's message. According to a 2018 study, door-to-door canvassing has proven effective in increasing vote share, as seen in the 2012 French presidential election.

Advertising and Media:

Political campaigns have long utilized various media channels for advertising, including television, print, and radio. With the advent of the internet, digital marketing and social media have become indispensable tools for reaching a wider audience, especially younger demographics. Connected TV (CTV) advertising is one such example of how campaigns are adapting to emerging technologies to connect with voters across multiple devices.

Data and Forecasting:

Political campaigns are increasingly data-driven, using advanced analytics and forecasting techniques to predict how a campaign will scale and perform. This allows campaigns to make informed decisions about budgeting, resource allocation, and targeting specific groups of voters.

Retargeting and Outreach:

Using retargeting strategies is crucial for re-engaging voters who have previously shown interest in the campaign. This ensures that the campaign's message reaches the right voters and helps increase voter turnout. Campaigns also need to be prepared to address challenges and smear campaigns by creating a rapid-response plan to deliver a focused and consistent message.

Events and Rallies:

Holding rallies, parades, and other campaign events have been traditional tactics used to engage and energize supporters. Local supporters and surrogates often organize and speak at these events on behalf of the candidate.

Campaign finance

In the United States, the Federal Election Commission (FEC) was established in 1975 to administer and enforce the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA), which governs the financing of federal elections. Despite this, the country continues to grapple with the issue of rising campaign costs. The 2012 presidential election between Barack Obama and Mitt Romney was the most expensive in US history, with an estimated cost of $7 billion. The high cost of campaigns can be attributed to various factors, including the length of campaigns, the cost of advertising, and the increasing use of digital and social media platforms.

The methods of campaign financing have evolved over time. In the past, candidates relied primarily on donations from individuals and special interest groups, such as political action committees (PACs). Today, campaign financing has become more diverse, with the advent of super PACs, which can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money, and the increased importance of self-funding by candidates. Additionally, the internet and digital technologies have provided new avenues for fundraising, such as crowdfunding and online donation platforms.

The impact of money in politics has been a subject of debate, with some arguing that it can lead to corruption and influence policy outcomes. On the other hand, others argue that campaign financing is a form of free speech and that spending limits may restrict political participation. The issue of campaign finance reform is complex, and various solutions have been proposed, including public financing of campaigns, stricter disclosure requirements, and the implementation of spending caps. However, finding a consensus on the most effective approach to address the issue remains a challenge.

The cost of producing a vote through different campaign methods varies significantly. According to a study, it costs $31 to produce a vote through door-to-door canvassing, $91-$137 through direct mailers, $47 through leafletting, $58-$125 through commercial phone banking, and $20-$35 through voluntary phone banking. The effectiveness of these methods also differs, with door-to-door canvassing and repeated get-out-the-vote phone calls having a more lasting persuasion effect on voters.

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