American Diplomacy's Goals: Expansion And Influence

Between 1890 and 1917, the United States' foreign policy was largely driven by economic interests and a desire to establish itself as a global power. This period saw the country slowly shift away from its traditionally isolationist stance towards a more active role in international affairs, with a particular focus on expanding its influence in Asia and Latin America. The US sought to secure new markets for its growing industrial economy, compete with other imperial powers, and establish itself as a dominant military force, especially in the Pacific. This shift was influenced by figures like Secretary of State John Hay and President Theodore Roosevelt, who pursued an expansionist agenda and sought to project American military power abroad. The US also intervened in Latin America, ostensibly to stabilize governments and impose democracy, but often to protect American business interests. These interventions, along with the country's growing economic and military power, set the stage for its entry into World War I in 1917.

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The US's expansionist foreign policy agenda

In the late 19th century, the US began to shift its focus outwards, beyond its borders. This shift was influenced by several factors, including the closing of the American frontier, increased industrial production, and the desire to emulate the global empires of European nations. The US wanted to exert its influence and establish itself as a dominant power on the world stage. This marked a departure from the previous decades of official isolationism and weak presidential leadership in foreign affairs.

Economic interests played a significant role in shaping the US's expansionist agenda. The country's industrial growth and economic pressures, such as the economic depression of the early 1890s, drove business owners to seek new markets and export opportunities. American exports skyrocketed in the years following the Civil War, reflecting the country's growing economic ambitions. The US also sought to secure access to raw materials and establish stronger ties with other nations to facilitate trade.

The expansionist agenda was also influenced by the idea of spreading American ideals and cultural values. American missionaries played a role in this, proselytizing in regions such as China, India, the Korean Peninsula, and Africa. They sought to evangelize their Christian beliefs and engage in reform efforts, reflecting a sense of moral certainty and zealousness associated with the emerging American empire.

US presidents during this period contributed to the expansionist foreign policy in different ways. President Theodore Roosevelt, who took office in 1901, prioritized naval expansion and military reform. He emphasized the importance of a powerful fleet for dominating the world's oceans and exerting diplomatic influence. Roosevelt's "Big Stick" diplomacy, as seen in his aggressive use of power in Latin America, demonstrated his willingness to use force or the threat of force to achieve US interests.

William Howard Taft, who became president in 1909, modified Roosevelt's approach with his "Dollar Diplomacy." Taft sought to use economic coercion rather than military force, leveraging the US's economic power to secure markets and opportunities for American businesses. He focused on Central America's debts to Europe and worked to bolster China's ability to withstand Japanese interference, maintaining a balance of power in the region.

In summary, the US's expansionist foreign policy agenda during this period was driven by economic interests, the pursuit of global power, and the spread of American ideals. It was characterized by both military expansion and the use of economic coercion, reflecting the changing priorities and ambitions of the nation as it emerged from a period of isolationism and internal reconstruction.

The need for a strong military presence

The United States' foreign policy goals in the period 1890-1917 were driven by a desire to establish itself as a global power, shedding its isolationist stance. This was underpinned by economic interests and the need to expand markets for American exports. However, the country lacked the military might to exert its influence, especially with a small army and a weak navy.

The Spanish-American War exposed the ineffectiveness of the Army's control over its departments and bureaus, highlighting the need for reform. Roosevelt supported reforms proposed by Secretary of War Elihu Root, which included establishing a uniformed chief of staff and a European-style general staff for planning. Root's initiatives also led to the expansion of West Point and the establishment of the US Army War College. These reforms aimed to professionalise and modernise the Army, ensuring it could effectively support American diplomatic and expansionist endeavours.

The United States' expansionist foreign policy led to interventions in Latin America, Asia, and the Pacific. In Latin America, the US intervened in Mexico, Cuba, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Panama, often citing the protection of American interests and citizens as a justification. President McKinley's annexation of Hawaii and the Philippines, and Roosevelt's Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, which positioned the US as an "international police power" in the region, further emphasised the need for a robust military to enforce these interventions.

The outbreak of World War I in 1914 and the subsequent US entry into the conflict in 1917 marked a significant shift in American diplomacy. While President Woodrow Wilson initially declared neutrality, the repeated sinking of American merchant ships by German U-boats led to a declaration of war. Wilson framed the US participation in the war as a noble endeavour to end aggressive militarism and bring about a more stable world order.

Economic interests and overseas markets

The period between 1890 and 1917 was a transformative era in American diplomacy, as the nation emerged from a period of isolationism and weak foreign policy to become a significant player on the world stage. This shift was driven by a range of factors, including economic interests and the pursuit of overseas markets.

As the United States underwent industrialisation, economic factors played an increasingly prominent role in shaping foreign policy. The country sought to expand its access to international markets for exports and secure better deals on raw materials. The economic depression of the early 1890s further emphasised the need to tap into new markets, and American exports to other nations skyrocketed in the years following the Civil War. This expansion of economic interests led to a more assertive foreign policy agenda.

American businesses sought to capitalise on the growing economic power of the nation, and their influence extended to foreign policy. President William Howard Taft's "dollar diplomacy" exemplified this approach, as he aimed to “substitute dollars for bullets” by leveraging America's economic might to coerce countries into agreements favourable to American interests. This approach reflected the belief that economic power could be a more effective tool than military force in achieving foreign policy goals.

A key aspect of this economic diplomacy was the focus on securing markets and opportunities for American businesses, particularly in Central America. Taft sought to intervene in the debts that several Central American nations owed to European countries, using the threat of economic power to exert influence and secure agreements that benefited the United States. This approach, while less militarily aggressive than previous policies, still faced challenges and resistance from countries like Russia and Japan, which limited America's ability to exert influence in certain regions.

The pursuit of economic interests and overseas markets also influenced American diplomacy in Asia. The Open Door Policy, aimed at promoting equal and open trade in China, was a notable example. While initial efforts to expand this policy in Manchuria faced resistance, the United States continued to pursue economic opportunities in the region. Additionally, the acquisition of territories like the Philippines through naval victories and the debate around the annexation of Hawaii reflected America's economic and strategic interests in the Pacific and its desire to establish a presence in Asia.

In conclusion, economic interests and the pursuit of overseas markets were key drivers of American diplomacy in the period between 1890 and 1917. This shift towards economic diplomacy shaped America's interactions with Central America, Asia, and other regions, as the nation sought to secure its economic influence and expand its access to international markets.

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US intervention in Latin America

The goals of American diplomacy in the period 1890-1917 were largely driven by economic opportunities and the desire to expand American influence overseas. This desire for expansion was influenced by the closing of the American frontier, increased industrial production, and the success of European empires.

The US had a long history of intervention in Latin America, driven by economic interests and the desire to exert influence in the region. This interventionism continued during the period of 1890-1917 and was marked by military incursions, regime change, and the imposition of American economic interests.

One of the earliest interventions in this period was the Spanish-American War of 1898, which resulted in the US invasion and occupation of Cuba, and the annexation of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The US granted Cuba independence but maintained significant influence over the country, including through policies like the Platt Amendment. American forces continued to invade and occupy Cuba multiple times, including from 1906-1909 and from 1917-1922 to protect American-owned sugar plantations.

The US also intervened in other Latin American countries during this period, including Mexico, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Panama. These interventions were often justified under the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, which aimed to prevent European powers from filling any financial power vacuums in the region. President William Howard Taft's "Dollar Diplomacy" exemplified this policy, as American corporations benefited from interventions while also assisting in national security goals.

The outbreak of the Mexican Revolution in 1910 brought escalating tensions and threats to American business interests. President Woodrow Wilson attempted to use military intervention to stabilize Mexico, landing US troops in the country multiple times, including in 1914 and 1916. Wilson also landed US troops in Haiti in 1915, the Dominican Republic in 1916, Cuba in 1917, and Panama in 1918.

US interventions in Latin America during this period were often aimed at stabilizing governments, imposing democracy, and protecting American commercial interests. They were also influenced by the expansionist foreign policy of the time and the desire to counter the threat of Marxism and potential rivals to the United States. The interventions had varying levels of success and sometimes resulted in human rights violations and prolonged occupations, as in the case of Haiti.

The Zimmermann Telegram

In the years leading up to 1917, the United States' foreign policy was largely driven by economic interests and expansionist goals. The country sought to forge stronger ties with other nations to gain access to new markets and raw materials, marking a shift from its previous isolationist stance. This shift was influenced by factors such as the closing of the American frontier, increased industrial production, and the desire to compete with other global powers.

One significant event that occurred during this period was the Spanish-American War, which highlighted the need for better control and reforms within the military. As a result, President Roosevelt prioritized naval expansion and worked to increase the number of ships and personnel in the Navy. Roosevelt also supported the expansion and reform of the United States military, recognizing the need to match the military strength of other major powers.

However, one of the most notable events that influenced American diplomacy during this time was the Zimmermann Telegram. On January 17, 1917, British cryptographers intercepted and deciphered a telegram from German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmermann to the German Minister to Mexico, Heinrich von Eckhardt. The telegram proposed a military alliance between Germany and Mexico if the United States entered World War I against Germany. With German aid, Mexico would seek to recover Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico, which it had lost during the Mexican-American War.

The revelation of the Zimmermann Telegram outraged Americans and helped draw the United States into World War I. It was seen as a threat to American interests and security, and it generated strong public support for the declaration of war against Germany in April 1917. The decryption of the telegram has been described as one of the most significant intelligence triumphs for Britain during World War I, as it marked an early instance of signals intelligence influencing world events.

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