Us-Mexico Treaty: A Constitutional Alliance

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, officially ended the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). The treaty was negotiated by Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the US State Department, and Mexican plenipotentiary representatives Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto, and Miguel Atristain. It gave the US undisputed control of Texas and ceded present-day states like California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, and Colorado to the US, reducing Mexico's territory by 55%. The treaty also established the US-Mexico border along the Rio Grande and set the stage for future relations between the two countries, with the US agreeing to protect the property and civil rights of Mexican nationals within the new US boundaries.

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The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

The treaty gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas and established the U.S.-Mexico border along the Rio Grande. Mexico ceded 55% of its territory, including the present-day states of California, Nevada, Utah, most of Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and a small portion of Wyoming. Additionally, parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming were also ceded to the United States. Mexico also relinquished all claims to Texas and recognized the Rio Grande as the southern boundary with the United States. In return, the U.S. government paid Mexico $15 million and agreed to assume debts owed to American citizens by the Mexican government.

The Mexican-American War

The US Army had expected a quick collapse of the Mexican forces, but Mexican General Santa Anna was determined to fight until the end, and Mexican soldiers often regrouped after battles to fight again. Despite several military defeats, the Mexican government was reluctant to agree to the loss of California and New Mexico. On May 1, 1847, the US army pushed on to Puebla, the second-largest city in Mexico, which capitulated without resistance.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, officially ended the Mexican-American War. The treaty was negotiated by Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the US State Department, and Mexican plenipotentiary representatives Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto, and Miguel Atristain. The treaty gave the US undisputed control of Texas and established the US-Mexico border along the Rio Grande. The treaty also ceded to the United States the present-day states of California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, and parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming. Mexico ceded 55% of its territory, and the US paid Mexico $15 million "in consideration of the extension acquired by the boundaries of the United States".

The treaty included provisions for the protection of property and civil rights of Mexican nationals living within the new US boundaries. It also promised that the United States would police its boundaries and included compulsory arbitration of future disputes between the two countries. The treaty marked the first large-scale success of a US military force on foreign soil. However, tensions between the two countries continued, and the Gadsden Purchase in 1854 further fuelled conflicts. This agreement was an attempt to resolve lingering issues, but it led to a new border dispute and failed to address financial claims and border attacks.

Ceding of territories

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, brought an end to the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). The treaty was negotiated by Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the US State Department, and Mexican plenipotentiary representatives Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto, and Miguel Atristain.

The treaty resulted in Mexico ceding 55% of its territory to the United States, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, most of Arizona and Colorado, and parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming. This cession is known as the Mexican Cession and included Upper California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México, as well as parts of present-day states that would later be established within their respective regions. Mexico also gave up all claims to Texas, recognizing the Rio Grande as the southern boundary with the United States. The exact territories to be ceded were not listed in the treaty text, but Article V described the new US-Mexico border.

The United States paid Mexico $15 million "in consideration of the extension acquired by the boundaries of the United States," as stated in Article XII of the treaty. This payment was intended to compensate Mexico for the loss of its territories. Additionally, the United States agreed to assume responsibility for American citizens' debts owed to the Mexican government, as outlined in Article XV.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo also included provisions for the protection of property and civil rights of Mexican nationals living within the new US boundaries, as outlined in Articles VIII and IX. The United States also agreed to police its boundaries and enforce compulsory arbitration of future disputes between the two countries, as stipulated in Articles XI and XV, respectively.

Despite the treaty, tensions between the United States and Mexico continued over the following years, particularly regarding border disputes and financial claims. One such dispute arose over the Mesilla Valley, with both countries claiming it as their own. Additionally, the Mexican government demanded monetary compensation for Native American attacks in the region, as the United States had agreed to protect Mexico from such attacks under the terms of the treaty. However, the United States refused to comply, insisting that their responsibility was limited to protection from attacks by Native Americans within their own territory.

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Border disputes

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, ended the war between the United States and Mexico. The treaty gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas and established the U.S.-Mexico border along the Rio Grande. Mexico ceded 55% of its territory, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, most of Arizona and Colorado, and parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming. Mexico also relinquished all claims to Texas and recognised the Rio Grande as the southern boundary with the U.S.

However, border disputes between the two countries continued in the years following the treaty. One significant dispute centred on the Mesilla Valley, with both countries claiming it as their own. This dispute was eventually resolved through the Gadsden Purchase in 1854, where the United States agreed to pay Mexico $10 million for a 29,670-square-mile portion of land that later became part of Arizona and New Mexico. This purchase created the southern border of the present-day United States.

Another dispute arose due to the shifting of the Rio Grande, which caused a conflict over the boundary between the states of New Mexico and Texas, known as the Country Club Dispute. Additionally, the border commission tasked with mapping out the boundary line faced numerous challenges, including transportation difficulties, harsh terrain, extreme weather, inaccurate information, and negotiations with indigenous Americans who had not been considered in prior treaty negotiations.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo also addressed the protection of property and civil rights of Mexican nationals living within the new U.S. boundaries. It further stipulated that the United States would police its boundaries and engage in compulsory arbitration of future disputes between the two countries. However, the armed forces of both countries routinely crossed the border, with Mexican and Confederate troops clashing during the American Civil War and the U.S. crossing the border during the Second French intervention in Mexico.

Compensation and claims

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, ended the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). The treaty resulted in Mexico ceding 55% of its territory to the United States, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, most of Arizona and Colorado, and parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming. Mexico also gave up all claims to Texas and agreed to the Rio Grande as the southern boundary with the United States.

The treaty included provisions for compensation and the settlement of claims between the two countries. Here are the key points related to compensation and claims:

Monetary Compensation

• The United States agreed to pay Mexico $15 million "in consideration of the extension acquired by the boundaries of the United States" (Article XII). This amount was to be paid in installments, with interest, as outlined in Article XIII of the treaty.
• The United States also agreed to pay the debts owed by the Mexican government to American citizens (Article XV).

Protection of Property and Civil Rights

Articles VIII and IX of the treaty provided for the protection of the property and civil rights of Mexican nationals living within the new U.S. boundaries.

Indian Raids and Captives

• Article XI addressed the issue of Indian raids into Mexico. It stipulated that the United States would prevent and punish these raids, prohibit Americans from acquiring property taken in the raids, and return captives taken by Indians.
• However, Mexico experienced continued raids despite the treaty, and filed 366 claims with the U.S. government for damages between 1848 and 1853.
• The Gadsden Purchase in 1853 annulled Article XI, removing any mention of Native American attacks and private claims.

Border Disputes

• After the treaty, tensions persisted over the Mesilla Valley, which both countries claimed. Mexico demanded monetary compensation for Native American attacks in the region, but the United States refused, arguing they had not agreed to financially compensate for such attacks.
• The Gadsden Purchase in 1853 aimed to resolve border disputes and monetary claims between the countries. The final treaty reduced the amount paid to Mexico to $10 million and removed references to Native American attacks. However, it successfully created the southern border of the present-day United States.

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