Jonah Patel
The US Constitution is a complex document that outlines the country's legal and political framework, addressing a wide range of issues. One area of diversity within the Constitution is the concept of diversity jurisdiction, which pertains to controversies between citizens of different states, or between a state and citizens of another state. This has been a significant aspect of the Constitution's interpretation, with cases often ending up in federal courts. Another issue is the inclusion of citizens of US territories, with conflicting rulings regarding their ability to use federal diversity jurisdiction. Finally, there is the matter of minimal versus complete diversity requirements in cases with multiple parties, with Chief Justice Marshall's early ruling requiring complete diversity being reinterpreted over time to allow for minimal diversity in certain situations. These three diverse issues within the US Constitution highlight the complexities and evolving nature of its interpretation.
| Characteristics | Values |
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| Presidential elections | |
| Extradition of a criminal back to a state for a trial | |
| Making laws |
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What You'll Learn
Diversity Jurisdiction
> "Controversies between two or more States; between a State and Citizens of another State, between Citizens of different States,—between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects."
The concept of diversity jurisdiction has been further elaborated on through judicial interpretations and legislation. For example, in the case of Strawbridge v. Curtiss, Chief Justice Marshall established that in multiparty litigation, there must be complete diversity, meaning that no party on one side could be a citizen of the same state as any party on the other side. However, in State Farm Fire & Casualty Co. v. Tashire, the Court clarified that this complete diversity requirement flows from the diversity jurisdiction statute rather than the Constitution, and that minimal diversity (where any two adverse parties are not co-citizens) is sufficient.
The Judiciary Act of 1789 was the first legislation to grant federal courts diversity jurisdiction, and it limited this jurisdiction to cases where the amount in controversy was at least $5,000. The Judiciary Act of 1875 eliminated the requirement that one of the parties be a citizen of the forum state, requiring only diverse citizenship and a minimum jurisdictional amount in controversy. More recently, the Class Action Fairness Act (CAFA) expanded federal courts' jurisdiction over class actions by substituting a minimal diversity-of-citizenship requirement in place of the complete diversity requirement. CAFA also imposed an amount-in-controversy threshold of $5,000,000 in class actions.
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Controversies between citizens of different states
The US Constitution grants federal courts jurisdiction over controversies between citizens of different states, known as diversity jurisdiction. This means that if the plaintiff and the defendant are citizens of different states, diversity jurisdiction exists regardless of the state in which the suit is brought.
Chief Justice Marshall established that in multi-party litigation, there must be complete diversity, meaning that no party on one side could be a citizen of any state of which any party on the other side is a citizen. However, it has been decided that minimal diversity is sufficient, meaning that federal courts possess diversity jurisdiction over a class action when any one of the plaintiffs is a citizen of a different state from any defendant.
The inclusion of controversies between citizens of different states among the judicial powers of the United States has been a topic of debate, with some arguing that it was included due to apprehensions about the impartiality of state tribunals. This has resulted in a large number of diversity cases on the dockets of federal courts, leading to proposals for restricting access to federal courts for such cases. The difficulty with this type of jurisdiction is that federal judges must decide issues of local import based on their interpretation of how state judges would rule, which can be a time-consuming process.
The Supreme Court has also placed some issues beyond litigation in federal courts in diversity cases, solely on policy grounds. For example, in Massachusetts v. Mellon, the Court stated that it is not the duty or power of a state to enforce its citizens' rights concerning their relations with the federal government. In South Carolina v. Katzenbach, the Court decided on the merits of the state's claim that Congress had exceeded its powers under the Fifteenth Amendment, potentially allowing states to assert their interest in executing their own laws.
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Congressional power
The US Constitution grants Congress the power to make all laws that are "necessary and proper" for executing the powers outlined in the Constitution and for governing the country. This includes the power to tax and to borrow money on behalf of the country. Congress also has the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, as well as with the Indian tribes within the country, and to establish a uniform rule of naturalization and uniform bankruptcy laws.
Congress is also responsible for coining money and regulating its value, as well as that of foreign currencies. It can also fix the standard of weights and measures. Congress has the power to punish those who counterfeit US currency or securities, and it can promote the progress of science and the arts by securing exclusive rights for authors and inventors over their respective writings and discoveries for a limited time.
In addition, Congress has the power to constitute tribunals below the Supreme Court and to define and punish crimes committed against the United States. It can also declare war, regulate the armed forces, and call forth the militia to suppress insurrections and repel invasions. Congress also has the power to provide for the punishment of crimes committed on the high seas and offences against the law of nations.
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Federal courts
The US Constitution addresses a diverse range of issues, including federal courts, which are an essential component of the US legal system. Federal courts interpret and apply the US Constitution and federal laws, ensuring their uniform application across all states. They also play a crucial role in resolving disputes that involve the US government, disputes between states, and cases that arise under the US Constitution, federal laws, and treaties.
One of the critical aspects of federal courts is their diversity jurisdiction, which allows them to hear cases involving citizens from different states or between citizens of a state and a foreign state. This jurisdiction is derived from Article III, Section 2, Clause 1 of the US Constitution, which grants federal courts the authority to preside over controversies between citizens of different states. This provision ensures that individuals from diverse backgrounds have access to impartial justice, promoting fairness and equality before the law.
The diversity jurisdiction of federal courts has evolved over time. Initially, complete diversity was required, meaning that in multiparty litigation, no two parties on opposing sides could share citizenship in the same state. However, this requirement has been relaxed in certain instances, with minimal diversity now being sufficient in some cases. This shift was influenced by rulings such as Strawbridge v. Curtiss and State Farm Fire & Casualty Co. v. Tashire, which clarified that the complete diversity requirement stemmed from statutory interpretation rather than the Constitution itself.
Despite the expansion of diversity jurisdiction, there have been proposals to restrict access to federal courts in such cases. The high volume of diversity cases on federal court dockets has raised concerns about the labour-intensive process of federal judges deciding issues of local import based on their interpretation of how state judges would rule. This dynamic underscores the ongoing challenges of balancing state and federal interests in a complex legal landscape.
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Constitutional power
The US Constitution outlines the nation's fundamental laws and principles, including the distribution of powers across various institutions. One of the key aspects of constitutional power in the US is the system of checks and balances, which ensures that no single branch of government holds excessive power. This system divides power across three branches: the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
The legislative branch, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, holds significant power in proposing and enacting laws. The House of Representatives has the exclusive power to initiate revenue bills, while the Senate has the sole authority to confirm treaties and presidential appointments.
The executive branch, led by the President, is responsible for enforcing the laws and administering the government. The President serves as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, has the power to veto legislation, and can issue executive orders with the force of law.
The judicial branch, headed by the Supreme Court, interprets the laws and ensures their constitutionality. It has the final say on controversial issues and can strike down laws that violate the Constitution. This branch also includes lower federal courts, which handle a high volume of diversity cases, often involving controversies between citizens of different states or between state citizens and those of foreign states.
Diversity jurisdiction grants federal courts the power to hear cases involving citizens of different states or foreign citizens. This jurisdiction has evolved over time, with early interpretations requiring complete diversity, meaning no plaintiff and defendant could be from the same state. However, this has shifted to a minimal diversity requirement, where federal courts gain diversity jurisdiction if any plaintiff and defendant are from different states.
In conclusion, constitutional power in the US is distributed across the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, each with distinct roles and responsibilities. The system of checks and balances ensures that power is balanced, and the judicial branch, through diversity jurisdiction, handles a range of cases involving citizens from diverse backgrounds.
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Frequently asked questions
Diversity jurisdiction refers to the extension of judicial power to controversies between citizens of different states, between a state and citizens of another state, and between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states.
Some cases involving diversity jurisdiction include Strawbridge v. Curtiss, Tidewater Transfer Co. v. Tidewater Transfer Co., and Americana of Puerto Rico v. X.
The requirements for diversity jurisdiction are that the plaintiff and defendant are citizens of different states, and in multiparty cases, there must be complete diversity, meaning no party on one side can be a citizen of any state of which any party on the other side is a citizen.
Diversity jurisdiction has evolved with statutes and case law interpretations. For example, the Judiciary Act of 1789 set a minimum amount in controversy of $5,000 for diversity jurisdiction, while the CAFA later imposed a higher threshold of $5,000,000 for class actions.
One challenge associated with diversity jurisdiction is the time and labour required for federal judges to decide issues of local import based on how state judges would rule, potentially detracting from resolving issues of federal importance.
