Eleanor Finch
Diplomacy has played a significant role in Italy's foreign relations and global standing. Italy's strategic location in Europe and its diverse cultural history have made diplomacy a crucial tool for maintaining power and influence. Italian diplomacy has a long history, with the Italian system of diplomacy spreading across Europe following the 16th-century wars in Italy and the Italian Renaissance. Italy's foreign relations have evolved over time, with the unification of the Italian kingdom in the 19th century and its involvement in World War I shaping its diplomatic strategies. Italy's alliances and rivalries with neighbouring countries, such as Austria, France, and Germany, have been a key focus of its diplomacy, influencing its participation in various wars and treaties. Italian diplomats have navigated complex international relations, employing strategies such as alliance-building and negotiation to pursue their country's interests. Italy's diplomatic efforts have contributed to its position as a major Western power and an influential member of international organisations like the United Nations and NATO.
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What You'll Learn
Italy's role in World War I
Initially, Italy remained neutral despite being a member of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. This decision was influenced by the Italian government's belief that supporting Austria-Hungary, its traditional enemy, would not help it gain the desired territories. Additionally, Italy had been enhancing its diplomatic ties with the United Kingdom and France, which further complicated its position within the Triple Alliance.
As the war progressed, Italy entered the conflict in 1915, driven by the goal of completing national unity and annexing territories along its border with Austria-Hungary. This decision was facilitated by the secret Pact of London, where Italy negotiated with the Entente powers, gaining their support for its annexation ambitions in exchange for joining the war on their side. Italy's intervention in World War I is also known as the Fourth Italian War of Independence, reflecting its aim to reunite Italian-speaking populations under a single state.
Italian troops played a significant role in various theatres of the war. They fought against Austria-Hungary in the Dolomites, engaging in fierce mountain warfare and constructing fighting tunnels for protection. Italian divisions were also sent to the Western Front to support the Entente, and they saw intense combat during the German spring offensive in 1918, notably at the Second Battle of Marne. Additionally, Italy sent a small detachment of soldiers to assist the British in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in 1917.
Italy's military efforts were not without challenges. Despite having a large number of mobilized troops, Italy faced difficulties in maintaining effective supply lines to support its front-line troops, which impacted their ability to secure victories.
Italian diplomacy during World War I was characterized by a lack of clear foreign policy objectives and excessive territorial claims. The country's diplomatic maneuvers were influenced by domestic political considerations, and the fragmentation of the political landscape impacted its war aims. Overall, Italy's role in World War I was shaped by its desire for territorial expansion, diplomatic alliances, and the challenges of conducting military operations on multiple fronts.
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Italian diplomacy in the Renaissance
Renaissance diplomacy emerged among Italian city-states in the 15th century, characterized by compromise and peaceful conflict resolution. Italy was a major hub of trade and culture during this time, and the Italian city-states were significant centres of diplomatic activity.
Italian city-states were influenced by two key elements: no hegemonic power and a strong interest in cooperating and solving problems through peaceful means. As they couldn't promote their interests through military tools, they relied on diplomacy. Their key tool was 'combinazioni', or different combinations and arrangements of players in city-states. They also frequently changed alliances between city-states, used bribery and spying, all of which became trademarks of Renaissance diplomacy.
The Papacy played a central role in Renaissance diplomacy, acting as both a political and religious power. The Pope served as a mediator in conflicts between Italian city-states and held diplomatic power, particularly in arbitrating disputes and forming alliances with other European powers. Wealthy and influential noble families within city-states, such as the Medici in Florence or the Gonzaga in Mantua, also played important roles in decision-making. Their marriages, alliances, and rivalries contributed to the intricate web of Renaissance diplomacy.
Diplomatic marriages were often used as a means of forging alliances and consolidating power. For example, the marriage of Isabella d'Este, daughter of the Duke of Ferrara, to Francesco Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua, was a strategic alliance aimed at strengthening ties between the two city-states and securing their mutual interests.
The first permanent diplomatic mission was established in 1455, representing the Duke of Milan in Genoa. The deployment of ambassadors, dispatched to foreign courts to negotiate treaties and alliances, acquire intelligence, and represent their home countries, was one of the main tenets of Renaissance diplomacy. During this time, diplomats were required to have expertise in a variety of subjects, including foreign languages, law, protocol, and the capacity for persuasive argument and negotiation.
The legacy of Renaissance diplomacy continues to shape our understanding of international relations and the pursuit of power and influence.
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The Italian diplomatic system's influence on other countries
The Italian diplomatic system has had a significant influence on other countries, particularly during the Renaissance period. The Italian Renaissance, a cultural and intellectual movement that began in the 14th century, saw the development of a sophisticated diplomatic system that was ahead of its time. This system was characterised by its flexibility, with negotiation, information-gathering, representation, and communication all interacting in a dynamic and multilayered process linked to political and cultural transformations.
One of the key aspects of Italian diplomacy during the Renaissance was its focus on the secular rather than the religious. While the Church and the Papacy remained important diplomatic actors, particularly within the Italian peninsula, the concept of separating church and state began to emerge. This was evident in the Gregorian reform, which distinguished between the duties associated with 'government' and those linked to 'diplomacy'.
The Italian diplomatic system of the Renaissance also spread beyond the Italian peninsula, influencing other European countries. The wars in Italy during the 16th century, along with the emergence of strong states north of the Alps and the Protestant revolt, contributed to the spread of Italian diplomatic practices. Henry VII of England was among the first to adopt the Italian system, initially employing Italian envoys. By the 1520s, England had established its own diplomatic service, followed by France, which adopted the Italian system during the same period.
The influence of Italian diplomacy was such that it helped shape the principles of statecraft that are still accepted today. Cardinal Richelieu, who established the first modern foreign ministry in France in 1626, drew on Italian diplomatic traditions. He viewed diplomacy as a continuous process of negotiation and asserted that the state's interests transcended those of the ruler. This idea of pursuing the "national interest" became a cornerstone of modern diplomacy, influencing leaders worldwide.
Additionally, the Italian language played a significant role in diplomacy during the Renaissance. While Latin had been the traditional language of diplomacy, the prominence of the Italian courts, particularly that of Louis XIV, led to French becoming the lingua franca of diplomacy from the late 17th century until the 20th century. This reflected the dominance of French culture and the establishment of French as a language of prestige across Europe.
In summary, the Italian diplomatic system during the Renaissance had a profound and lasting influence on the development of diplomacy in Europe and beyond. It contributed to the evolution of diplomatic practices, the spread of knowledge, and the establishment of diplomatic services in other countries, shaping the very language and principles that would come to define modern diplomacy.
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Italy's foreign relations and allies
Italy has been considered a major Western power since its unification in 1860. Its main allies are the NATO countries and the EU states, two entities of which Italy is a founding member. In 1949, Italy became a member of NATO and was admitted to the United Nations in 1955. Italy is also a recurrent non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. It is an important actor in the Mediterranean region and has close relations with the Romance-speaking countries in Europe and Latin America.
Italy is a member and strong supporter of a wide number of international organisations, including the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and World Trade Organization (GATT and WTO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Council of Europe, and the Central European Initiative. It has also held the rotating presidency of international organisations, including the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the G7 and the EU Council.
Historically, Italy has had a complex network of foreign relations and alliances. In the context of the 1848 liberal revolutions that swept through Europe, an unsuccessful first war of independence was declared on Austria. In 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia became an ally of Britain and France in the Crimean War, giving the country legitimacy in the eyes of the great powers. The Kingdom of Sardinia again attacked the Austrian Empire in the Second Italian War of Independence of 1859, with the aid of France, resulting in the liberation of Lombardy. In 1866, Italy allied with Prussia during the Austro-Prussian War, waging the Third Italian War of Independence which allowed Italy to annex Venetia. Later, Italy formed the Triple Alliance (1882) with Germany and Austria.
Italy defeated the Ottoman Empire in 1911–1912, acquiring territories in Africa and the Mediterranean. However, by 1915, Italy had abrogated its alliance and declared war on the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During the Fascist era under Mussolini, Italy's foreign policy became increasingly expansionist, with invasions of Corfu in 1923, the occupation of Albania in 1935, and the invasion of Ethiopia in 1935, resulting in international alienation. Italy also allied with Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan and supported Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War.
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Italian unification and its impact on diplomacy
The Risorgimento era, from 1829 to 1871, witnessed the emergence of a strong national identity in Italy. The Kingdom of Sardinia, led by the House of Savoy, played a pivotal role in this period. Count Camillo Benso of Cavour, the kingdom's prime minister, demonstrated adept diplomacy by forging strategic alliances with Britain and France during the Crimean War. This diplomatic manoeuvring granted Sardinia legitimacy among the great powers of Europe. The kingdom's subsequent military campaigns against the Austrian Empire, with French support, led to the liberation of Lombardy and the annexation of Savoy and Nice, marking early successes in the unification process.
The drive for unification gained momentum in 1860–1861 under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi. His campaigns in Naples and Sicily culminated in the conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Simultaneously, the House of Savoy troops occupied central regions of the Italian peninsula, excluding Rome and parts of the Papal States. This enabled the Sardinian government to proclaim a united Italian kingdom in March 1861. The newly unified Italy continued to pursue strategic alliances, partnering with Prussia during the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, which resulted in Italy's annexation of Venetia.
The unification of Italy disrupted the existing power dynamics in Europe and influenced the country's diplomatic strategies. Italy's geographic position and naval capabilities became crucial factors in its diplomatic calculations. Italy's proximity to France, Austria, and Turkey influenced its foreign policy, with a focus on fostering strong relations and carefully navigating potential conflicts. Italy's diverse winning centres, including Venice, Rome, Naples, and Tunisia, contributed to its strategic advantage. Maintaining alliances and managing complex relationships with neighbouring powers became a central aspect of Italian diplomacy.
The impact of unification extended beyond Italy's borders, affecting the dynamics between European nations. The rise of Italian nationalism and imperialism, fuelled by the notion of a "mutilated victory" in World War I, shaped the country's diplomatic relations during the interwar period. Italy sought to complete its unification project by incorporating unredeemed territories, known as "Italia Irredenta," into the Italian state. This expansionist agenda contributed to the rise of Italian Fascism under Benito Mussolini, who aimed to satisfy the claims of Italian irredentists.
In conclusion, Italian unification had a profound impact on the country's diplomacy. The process of unification required intricate negotiations, alliance-building, and a delicate balancing act between European powers. The unified Italy that emerged in 1861 had to navigate complex relationships with neighbouring states, leveraging its geographic advantages and fostering alliances to secure its interests. The aftermath of World War I further influenced Italian diplomatic strategies, with nationalism and imperialism shaping the country's foreign relations in the 20th century.
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Frequently asked questions
During World War I, Italy's foreign minister, Sonnino, attempted to play both ends against the middle at the Peace Conference, supporting one side against the other and selling his support case by case. However, when Germany collapsed, he was confronted by French and British diplomats who had seen through his schemes and no longer needed his support. This led to Italy not receiving the territories promised by the Treaty of London, which was denounced as a ""mutilated victory" and later used as propaganda by Benito Mussolini to fuel Italian fascism.
Diplomacy during the Renaissance was a flexible political activity that involved negotiation, information-gathering, representation, and communication. Diplomats played a crucial role in the transfer and spread of knowledge and information as they were among the few who had the privilege of travelling to remote places in search of news. The Italian diplomatic system was also adopted by other European countries like England and France in the 16th century.
Modern Italy has strong diplomatic relations with other major Western powers as a founding member of NATO and the EU. Italy is also a member and strong supporter of several international organizations, including the United Nations, the OECD, the WTO, and the OSCE. Italy's foreign relations focus on fostering strong alliances and maintaining its position as a major Western power.
