Eleanor Finch
Niccolò Machiavelli is known for his political theories, most notably outlined in his treatise The Prince, which served as a handbook for rulers. Machiavelli's ideas have been influential, sparking much debate about his true allegiance – whether to princes and tyrants or to republics. Machiavelli's political theory excludes issues of moral authority and focuses on the acquisition and maintenance of power. He argues that authority and power are coequal, and that the only real concern in politics is maintaining power. Machiavelli's Discourses reconstructs the history and constitution of the ancient Roman republic, presenting it as a model for present and future popular governments. Machiavelli's ideal constitution differs from post-18th-century constitutionalism by excluding wealthy citizens from important legislative roles, appointing public magistrates through a lottery system, and leaving the judgment of political crimes to the entire citizenry.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Machiavelli's political theory | Machiavelli's political theory excludes issues of moral authority and legitimacy from consideration in the discussion of political decision-making and political judgment |
| Machiavelli's view on authority and power | Machiavelli believes that there is no moral basis for judging the difference between legitimate and illegitimate uses of power. Whoever has power has the right to command, and goodness does not ensure power. |
| Machiavelli's view on law and force | Machiavelli acknowledges that good laws and good arms are necessary for a well-ordered political system, but since coercion creates legality, he focuses on force. |
| Machiavelli's view on fear | Machiavelli believes that fear is always preferable to affection in subjects, and that violence and deception are superior to legality in controlling them. |
| Machiavelli's view on the role of the people | Machiavelli was more sympathetic to popular participation in government than most earlier writers. He argued that when the people are subject to the rule of law, they make better decisions and are more likely to preserve liberty than aristocratic "experts." |
| Machiavelli's view on the role of the prince | Machiavelli wrote "The Prince" as a handbook for rulers, claiming that he is not interested in talking about ideal republics or imaginary utopias. |
| Machiavelli's view on the nature of man | Machiavelli believed that constitution-makers must "presume that all men are bad by nature" and that constitutional rules must be drafted on the assumption that people will act in bad ways. |
| Machiavelli's view on the role of the republic | Machiavelli expressed a distinct preference for a republic, arguing that only in a republic can the goal of freedom of the community be attained through the active participation of, and contention between, the nobility and the people. |
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What You'll Learn
Machiavelli's 'perfect' constitution
Machiavelli's ideal constitution, as outlined in his "Discourses", is one that promotes liberty and active participation in government. Machiavelli's perfect constitution is a republic, specifically one modelled after the ancient Roman republic.
Machiavelli's ideal constitution is one that stands the test of time. He cites Sparta as an example of a republic that observed its laws for over eight hundred years without altering them and without experiencing any dangerous disturbances. He attributes this longevity to the sage legislator Lycurgus, who organised the government of Sparta in such a way that the king, nobles, and people each had their portion of authority and duties.
Machiavelli's perfect constitution, therefore, involves the exclusion of wealthy and prominent citizens from important legislative assemblies and executive offices. He argues that common citizens need their own offices and assemblies to live free from oppression by political and socioeconomic elites. Machiavelli also advocates for the direct, collective judgment of citizens over political cases of malfeasance, corruption, and abuse of power.
Machiavelli's perfect constitution includes a strong judicial power to preserve liberty. He is sympathetic to popular participation in government and believes that when the people at large are subject to the rule of law, they make better decisions and are more likely to preserve liberty than aristocratic "experts".
Machiavelli's ideal constitutional model also differs from post-eighteenth-century constitutionalism in its method of appointing public magistrates. Instead of relying solely on elections, Machiavelli suggests incorporating a lottery system or a mixture of lottery and election. This ensures that nominators are chosen at random and cannot be expected to have a preconceived bias toward certain candidates.
In summary, Machiavelli's perfect constitution is a republic that promotes liberty and active participation in government. It excludes wealthy citizens from important positions, includes a strong judicial power, and incorporates a lottery system for appointing public magistrates. Machiavelli's ideal constitution stands in contrast to post-eighteenth-century constitutionalism and seeks to prevent socioeconomic inequality from translating into political inequality.
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Machiavelli's view on the role of the people
Machiavelli's views on the role of the people are a key part of his political theory. He was more sympathetic to popular participation in government than most earlier writers. In his work "Discourses", Machiavelli argued that when the people at large are subject to the rule of law, they make better decisions and are more likely to preserve liberty than aristocratic "experts".
Machiavelli's political theory excludes issues of moral authority and legitimacy from consideration in political decision-making and judgment. He acknowledges that good laws and good arms are the foundations of a well-ordered political system, but since coercion creates legality, he concentrates on force. Machiavelli says, "Since there cannot be good laws without good arms, I will not consider laws but speak of arms", meaning that valid law rests entirely upon the threat of coercive force.
In his best-known treatise, "The Prince", Machiavelli criticises the moralistic view of authority. For him, there is no moral basis for judging the difference between legitimate and illegitimate uses of power. Instead, authority and power are essentially coequal: whoever has power has the right to command, regardless of their goodness. Machiavelli presents a criticism of the concept of authority by arguing that the notion of legitimate rights of rulership adds nothing to the actual possession of power.
Machiavelli's "Discourses" reconstructs the history and constitution of the ancient Roman republic, revising it as a model for present and future popular governments. Machiavelli was concerned with the ambition and behaviour of the wealthiest and most powerful segments of a republic, whose appetite to oppress motivates them to acquire socioeconomic and political advantages. He favours Roman institutions and practices that excluded wealthy and prominent citizens, operated beyond their influence, or directly opposed their power.
Machiavelli's institutional recommendations include the appointment of public magistrates through a lottery or a mixture of lottery and election, and leaving the judgment of the punishment of public officials or private individuals indicted for political crimes to the entire citizenry. He argues that common citizens need their own offices and assemblies to live free from oppression by political and socioeconomic elites, and that they should exercise direct, collective judgment over political cases of malfeasance, corruption, and abuse of power.
In a fully constitutional regime, Machiavelli argues that the goal of the political order is the freedom of the community, created by the active participation of, and contention between, the nobility and the people. He expresses a preference for a republic, where liberty forms a value that anchors his political theory and guides his evaluations of different types of regimes.
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Machiavelli's thoughts on the acquisition and maintenance of power
Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) was a Florentine writer and public official who is considered the world's foremost philosopher of power. Machiavelli's political theory centres on the acquisition and maintenance of power, excluding issues of moral authority and legitimacy from political decision-making and judgment. Machiavelli argues that there is no moral basis for distinguishing between legitimate and illegitimate uses of power. Instead, he asserts that authority and power are coequal—whoever has power has the right to command, regardless of their moral goodness. In "The Prince," Machiavelli further challenges the moralistic view of authority by suggesting that a ruler who wishes to maintain power need not always be good.
Machiavelli's thoughts on power are deeply intertwined with his understanding of human nature. He believed that constitution-makers must presume that all men are inherently bad, and thus, constitutional rules should be crafted under the assumption that people will act in a self-serving manner. This perspective aligns with his broader argument that the primary concern in politics is the acquisition and maintenance of power, rather than moral or ethical considerations.
Machiavelli's ideas on power extend beyond the individual ruler to the structure of government and the role of the people. He favoured a strong judicial power to preserve liberty and was sympathetic to popular participation in government. Machiavelli argued that when the people are subject to the rule of law and not acting as a mob, they make better decisions and are more likely to protect liberty than aristocratic "experts". He believed that the people are more concerned about and willing to defend their liberty against oppression by those in power. This active role for the people is essential for maintaining public liberty but clashes with the hierarchical structure of monarchic rule.
Machiavelli's concept of power also involves the exclusion of wealthy citizens from important legislative assemblies and executive offices. He advocated for assemblies and offices that belong exclusively to common citizens, allowing them to live free from oppression by political and socioeconomic elites. Machiavelli's views on power and governance were influenced by his experience with the French government during his career as a secretary and diplomat in the Florentine republic. While he made limited comments about the French monarchy in "The Prince," he devoted significant attention to France in his "Discourses."
Machiavelli's thoughts on power have been described as "modern political science," as they focus on explaining how politicians utilise power for their gain rather than distinguishing between "just" and "unjust" forms of government. His ideas have been influential, with scholars citing his impact on early modern debates surrounding the "reason of state" and the shaping of the American Constitution.
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Machiavelli's ideas on the relationship between law and force
In Machiavelli's view, good laws and good arms are the dual foundations of a well-ordered political system. However, he adds that since coercion creates legality, force is the more important of the two. In other words, valid law rests entirely upon the threat of coercive force, and authority is impossible without the power to enforce it. Machiavelli concludes that fear is preferable to affection in subjects, and that violence and deception are more effective than legality in controlling them. Machiavelli's ideas on this topic are laid out in his best-known treatise, "The Prince".
Machiavelli's ideas on law and force are connected to his views on the role of the ruler. He believed that the character of governance is determined by the personal qualities and traits of the ruler, and that successful rulers need special training. He also believed that the state is a personal patrimony, a possession in line with the medieval conception of dominium (meaning private property or political dominion) as the foundation of rule. Machiavelli's emphasis on the ruler's personal qualities and the idea of the state as a possession have been interpreted as showing that he was a transitional figure in the development of the language of the state in early modern Europe.
Machiavelli's ideas on law and force are also related to his views on the role of the people in government. He was more sympathetic to popular participation in government than many earlier writers. In the "Discourses", he argued that when the people at large are subject to the rule of law, they make better decisions and are more likely to preserve liberty than aristocratic "experts". Machiavelli also believed that common citizens needed their own offices and assemblies, free from the influence of political and socioeconomic elites, and that they should exercise direct collective judgment over political cases of malfeasance, corruption, and abuse of power.
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Machiavelli's realism
At the core of Machiavellianism is the belief that power is the ultimate determinant of authority. Machiavelli asserts that there is no moral basis for distinguishing between legitimate and illegitimate uses of power. In his view, whoever possesses power inherently has the right to command, regardless of their moral character. This stance directly opposes theories that derive political authority from moral righteousness or divine right. Machiavelli's realism maintains that the only concern in politics is the acquisition and maintenance of power, and that "goodness does not ensure power".
Another aspect of Machiavellianism is its view of human nature. Machiavelli recognizes the role of negative human traits, such as fickleness, greed, fear, and self-interest, in political dynamics. In "The Prince", he illustrates this through the example of Cesare Borgia, who employed cruel and violent tactics to establish order in a conquered region. Machiavelli's realism acknowledges the darker aspects of human nature and suggests that effective governance requires recognizing and navigating these inherent complexities.
In conclusion, Machiavellianism, as exemplified in "The Prince", embodies a realist philosophy that prioritizes power and pragmatism over moral idealism. Machiavelli's insights into human nature, the role of force, and the dynamics of authority have influenced political thinking and continue to spark discussions about the nature of power and its relationship with morality.
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Frequently asked questions
Machiavelli's political theory is based on the exclusion of issues of moral authority and legitimacy from political decision-making and political judgment. Machiavelli acknowledges that good laws and good arms are the dual foundations of a well-ordered political system, but he adds that since coercion creates legality, he will concentrate on force.
Machiavelli says, "Since there cannot be good laws without good arms, I will not consider laws but speak of arms". He concludes that fear is preferable to affection in subjects, and that violence and deception are superior to legality in controlling them.
Machiavelli was more sympathetic to popular participation in government than most earlier writers. He argued that when the people at large are subject to the rule of law, they make better decisions and are more likely to preserve liberty than aristocratic "experts".
Machiavelli believed that a strong judicial power was necessary to preserve liberty. He also believed that common citizens needed their own offices and assemblies, free from the influence of political and socioeconomic elites, in order to live free from oppression.
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