Malcolm Rivera
The study of what constitutes good and bad is a complex and multifaceted topic that has been explored by philosophers, scientists, and scholars throughout history. This field of inquiry, known as ethics or moral philosophy, delves into questions of morality and seeks to understand the underlying principles that guide human actions. While everyone seems to possess an inherent sense of right and wrong, the standards for good and bad are not fixed and can vary across individuals, cultures, and circumstances. The study of good and evil encompasses various branches, including normative ethics, applied ethics, and metaethics, each offering unique perspectives on this intricate subject matter. Despite the challenges, some scholars like Sam Harris argue that it is possible to scientifically determine what is good and evil, while others disagree, highlighting the subjective nature of morality and the limitations of scientific inquiry in this context.
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What You'll Learn
The study of good and evil is called ethics
The study of good and evil is a complex and multifaceted field that delves into the heart of human morality and value systems. This academic discipline is known as ethics or moral philosophy. It involves the systematic examination and defence of concepts of right and wrong behaviour, seeking to understand the nature of ethical principles and their role in guiding human actions.
Ethics explores the fundamental questions of what constitutes "good" and "evil" or "bad" conduct. It investigates the underlying principles that shape our moral judgments and distinguishes between "right" and "wrong", "good" and "bad". This study extends beyond mere compliance with laws or social norms, probing deeper into the essence of a good and ethical life.
There are several branches of ethics that approach the study of good and evil from different angles. Normative ethics focuses on how we ought to behave, providing guidelines for moral action. Applied ethics, on the other hand, addresses specific moral issues and their practical implications. Metaethics, a branch studied extensively by Bertrand Russell, delves into the nature of morality itself, exploring the origins and meaning of evaluative language. It asks profound questions such as "Why is something good or bad?" and "Where do right and wrong come from?"
The concept of good and evil is deeply rooted in human culture and philosophy. Ancient philosophers like Zoroaster conceptualised the forces of good and evil as two opposing deities, Ahura Mazda (Illuminating Wisdom) and Angra Mainyu (Destructive Spirit). This dualistic belief system has influenced various sects and religions, shaping their understanding of morality.
While the study of good and evil primarily falls within the domain of philosophy, some scholars, like Sam Harris, have proposed a scientific approach to determining good and evil. Harris argues that science can theoretically build a discipline to maximise good in the universe by assuming that a universe resulting in the worst outcome for sentient beings is bad. However, critics refute this idea, highlighting the complexities of defining good and evil in scientific terms and the inherent differences between scientific exploration and moral inquiry.
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Morality is subjective, depending on people, culture, and circumstances
The study of what constitutes good and bad falls under the branch of philosophy known as ethics or moral philosophy. It involves the systematic examination and defence of concepts of right and wrong behaviour, seeking to understand the nature of ethical principles and how they should guide human actions.
While morality may seem subjective and relative to different people, cultures, and circumstances, there are some universal standards of right and wrong that most people agree on, such as "Love your neighbour as yourself" or "Thou shalt not steal". However, these standards are not fixed and can change over time or vary across different cultures. For example, the popularity of slavery has declined across cultures, but it was once a widely accepted practice.
The idea of morality being subjective is supported by the belief that there is no inherent good or bad in the infinite universe. Terms like "good" and "bad" are comparative and subjective, made by humans to express their feelings about morality. For instance, the same event can have a positive effect on one person and a negative effect on another. Furthermore, what is considered "good" or "bad" can depend on an individual's desires or preferences. Something that is desired by one person may be considered "good" for them, even if it is "bad" from another person's perspective.
Different theories attempt to explain the source of morality. Natural Law Theory, for instance, posits that moral values and obligations come from facts about what causes human beings to flourish. In contrast, Divine Command Theory asserts that our moral obligations are derived from God's commands, with right and wrong determined by what God deems as good.
While some believe that morality is subjective, others argue for its objectivity, claiming that it exists independently of human beings. This debate between subjective and objective morality is ongoing, with proponents of each view presenting arguments and evidence to support their position.
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Morality is objective, independent of human beings
The study of what constitutes good and bad falls under the branch of ethics, specifically normative ethics, which concerns how we ought to behave. Other branches of ethics include applied ethics, which deals with particular moral issues, and meta-ethics, which examines the nature of morality itself.
Now, onto the statement, "Morality is objective, independent of human beings".
Morality as Objective
The idea that morality is objective suggests that moral values exist independently of human beliefs, culture, or perspective. In other words, certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of what individuals or societies think about them. This view implies a universal set of moral standards that transcends human subjectivity.
Arguments for Objectivity in Morality
Some philosophers and scholars argue that morality is indeed objective. For instance, theories of metaethics, a branch of philosophy, seek to justify why we ought to act in certain ways. One such theory is moral realism, which posits that moral facts exist, and our moral judgments are either validated or invalidated by these facts. This implies that morality is independent of human interpretation.
Another argument for moral objectivity comes from anthropology. Anthropologist Klenk, for example, has noted that anthropology has increasingly recognized moral systems and ethics as distinct objects of study. This shift acknowledges that moral systems are independent domains, separate from other normative considerations such as prudential, epistemic, or aesthetic ones.
The Influence of Human Factors
However, it is important to acknowledge the influence of human factors on morality. Firstly, the capacity for abstraction, which is necessary for making value judgments, is considered unique to humans due to our advanced intelligence. This capacity allows us to perceive actions or objects as more or less desirable and forms the basis of ethical behavior.
Additionally, while moral values may be objective, their interpretation and application can vary across time and space. For example, the practice of human sacrifice by the Incas, which was acceptable within their cultural context, would be considered morally wrong by most people today. This illustrates how moral norms can evolve and differ across societies and historical periods.
The Role of Desires and Preferences
The relationship between desires, preferences, and morality is complex. Some argue that good is synonymous with desired, suggesting that something is good if it is desired or hoped for. However, this view faces challenges when distinguishing between good and bad desires. For instance, desiring another person's pain could be considered a bad desire, even though it is desired.
Furthermore, desires can be subjective and vary between individuals and cultures. Meher Baba proposed that experiences and actions that reduce limiting desires are good, while those that increase the fetters of desire are bad. This perspective highlights the subjective nature of desire and its potential conflict with objective moral standards.
In conclusion, while the statement "Morality is objective, independent of human beings" presents a compelling philosophical argument, it is important to acknowledge the intricate interplay between human factors and moral values. While certain moral principles may be universal and objective, their interpretation and application are influenced by human intelligence, culture, and individual perspectives. The study of morality, therefore, involves examining these complexities and seeking to understand the underlying principles that guide our ethical behavior.
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Good and bad are comparative terms that change over time
The study of what constitutes good and bad falls under the branch of philosophy known as ethics or moral philosophy. It involves the systematic examination and defence of concepts of right and wrong behaviour, seeking to understand the nature of ethical principles and how they should guide human actions.
Good and bad are indeed comparative terms that change over time. For instance, in the classical political economy, human labour was seen as the ultimate source of all new economic value, with value attributed to real production costs and expenditures of human labour-time. However, marginal utility theory argues that the value of labour depends on subjective consumer preferences. Similarly, in the field of medicine, some T cells are helper T cells, while others are killer T cells, with roles that can be considered "good" or "bad" in a specific context.
The philosopher Zoroaster, for instance, simplified the early Iranian pantheon into two opposing forces: Ahura Mazda (Illuminating Wisdom) and Angra Mainyu (Destructive Spirit). This idea evolved into a religion with sects embracing dualistic beliefs, shunning the material world, and embracing the spiritual.
Moreover, what is considered good or bad can vary between individuals and cultures. For example, while most people agree that being loving and forgiving are good, and that murder and rape are wrong, the underlying motivations for these actions can be complex. According to Meher Baba, it is not the satisfaction of desires that motivates us, but rather "a desire to be free from the limitation of all desires". Thus, experiences and actions that emancipate the mind from limiting desires are considered good.
Furthermore, the notion of "good" is often associated with what is morally right, while "bad" is equated with what is morally wrong or failing to meet acceptable standards. However, these standards are not fixed and can change over time. For instance, the popularity of slavery has declined across cultures, and what was once considered acceptable is now widely regarded as abhorrent.
Finally, in the context of evolutionary ethics, the phrase "survival of the fittest" has led to the belief that those who survive are ethically superior, and that evolution progresses from "good to better". However, this view lacks a logical foundation, as evolution could just as easily go from "bad to worse".
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Good and bad can be determined scientifically
The study of what constitutes good and bad falls under the field of ethics, or moral philosophy. It involves the systematic examination and defence of concepts of right and wrong behaviour, delving into questions of morality and seeking to understand the nature of ethical principles and their guidance of human actions.
While the concept of good and bad is often associated with morality and cultural universals, some argue that these are not fixed standards. In fact, the idea of good and bad can vary based on individual desires, preferences, and circumstances. For instance, something may be considered good if it is desired or hoped for, while something bad may be what is feared or undesirable. These desires can be either personal or impersonal.
The study of good and bad can be approached through descriptive and normative methods. The descriptive approach attempts to describe what people view as good or bad, while the normative approach aims to prohibit evils and cherish goods. These methods can be complementary, as seen in the example of tracking the decline of slavery and advising against it.
Additionally, the study of good and bad can be examined through the lens of natural law theory and divine command theory. The former suggests that human moral values and obligations arise from facts about what promotes human flourishing. In contrast, the latter asserts that our moral obligations are derived from God's commands, with right and wrong actions determined by God's definition of good.
While some scholars argue that good and bad cannot be determined scientifically, others like Sam Harris propose that it is theoretically possible. Harris suggests that the assumption we need to make for this scientific determination is that it is bad for the universe to result in the worst possible outcome for all sentient beings. Building upon this foundation, a scientific discipline could be established to maximize good in the universe. However, critics argue that Harris's method does not align with the stages of scientific inquiry, particularly regarding the crucial aspect of testing and falsification.
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Frequently asked questions
The study of what constitutes good and bad is called ethics, or moral philosophy.
There are three major branches of ethics: normative ethics, applied ethics, and metaethics. Normative ethics concerns how we ought to behave, applied ethics concerns particular moral issues, and metaethics concerns the nature of morality itself.
Metaethics is the study of what makes something good or bad, and why there are such things as moral good and moral bad. It does not concern what is good or bad, but the nature and origins of good and evil.
There are many theories of morality. Some believe that morality is subjective and depends on individuals, cultures, and circumstances. Others believe that morality is objective and independent of human beings. Most theists attribute morality to God, while atheists claim that God is not necessary for morality.
Some, like Sam Harris, argue that it is possible to scientifically determine what is good and evil. Harris argues that the only assumption necessary is that it is bad for there to be a universe that results in the worst possible outcome for all sentient beings. However, critics argue that morality is not a scientific question and that Harris misunderstands the nature of science.
