Malcolm Rivera
Zimbabwe's diplomacy has been influenced by various factors, including the Cold War, decolonization, and racial dynamics. The country's foreign relations have evolved since its independence from the United Kingdom in 1965, and it now maintains relations with various countries, especially its African neighbours and Soviet states. The leadership of Robert Mugabe significantly shaped Zimbabwe's foreign policy, and the country's relationship with South Africa, in particular, has been a focus of diplomatic efforts, with quiet diplomacy being a notable approach. Zimbabwe's history, including the rivalry between Joshua Nkomo and Robert Mugabe, has also informed its diplomatic stance and engagement with the world.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Current diplomatic relations | Zimbabwe maintains relations with various countries around the world, with close diplomatic relations with neighboring nations. |
| Bilateral relations | Zimbabwe has significant bilateral relations with several countries. |
| Foreign policy | Under Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe ran a new foreign policy that operated more closely with African, Soviet, and NAM states. |
| Diplomatic presence | Following Ian Smith's Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom in 1965, Rhodesia's diplomatic presence was reduced globally. By the Lancaster House Agreement in 1979, Rhodesia had representative offices in major cities, including London, Bonn, Pretoria, Washington, D.C., and Tokyo. |
| Commonwealth membership | The British Government has expressed support for Zimbabwe's return to its membership of the Commonwealth. |
| Cold War influence | The diplomacy of decolonization in Zimbabwe was influenced by Cold War racialized thinking, with Anglo-American concerns about the departure of whites after independence. |
| Regional cooperation | South Africa's "quiet diplomacy" approach towards Zimbabwe focuses on dialogue and persuasion, considering their trade and investment interests, as well as regional stability. |
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What You'll Learn
The Rhodesian settlement and independence from the UK in 1965
The road to Rhodesia's UDI was paved with growing tensions between the British and Rhodesian governments, particularly over the issue of majority rule. The rapid decolonisation of Africa in the early 1960s and the British policy of "no independence before majority rule" alarmed Southern Rhodesia's white minority, who made up about 5% of the population. They felt they were due independence after four decades of self-rule and saw the advancement of neighbouring African colonies to independence as a betrayal by the British.
In an attempt to delay the transition to black majority rule, the Rhodesian government, led by Prime Minister Ian Smith, engaged in a stalemate with the British government, headed by Prime Minister Harold Wilson, between 1964 and 1965. The dispute centred around the British condition that the terms of independence had to be acceptable to all people of the country, which Smith contended they had met. Wilson proposed safeguarding future black representation in the Rhodesian parliament by reducing the colonial government's powers, but these terms were deemed unacceptable by the Rhodesians.
In the face of continued British resistance, Smith and his cabinet declared independence, an act that Wilson called treasonous. The Rhodesian High Court, however, deemed the post-UDI government legal and de jure in 1968. The Rhodesian government initially professed continued loyalty to Queen Elizabeth II but abandoned this in 1970 when it declared itself a republic in an unsuccessful attempt to gain foreign recognition.
The UK, the Commonwealth, and the United Nations all deemed Rhodesia's UDI illegal and imposed economic sanctions on the breakaway colony. The United Nations Security Council called on all states not to grant recognition to Rhodesia, and UN officials branded the Rhodesian government an "illegal racist minority regime". Despite these measures, no country took military action to prevent Rhodesia's independence, and the country remained isolated until the Lancaster House Agreement in 1979.
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Foreign policy under Robert Mugabe
Robert Mugabe's foreign policy was marked by a shift in Zimbabwe's diplomatic relations, with a focus on building closer ties with African, Soviet, and NAM (Non-Aligned Movement) states. Mugabe's government made pronouncements about transforming Zimbabwe into a socialist society, although his budgetary policies operated within a capitalist framework, recognising the need for foreign investment.
Mugabe's early dealings with the West were marked by pragmatism. Michael Pallister, head of the British Foreign Office, described him as having "a very sharp, sometimes rather aggressive, and unpleasant manner". However, Peter Longworth, a British diplomat, noted that Mugabe could be "very charming and very articulate". Mugabe's policies and statements often reflected a preoccupation with race and colonialism, and he took advantage of Cold War racialised thinking about Zimbabwe, including Anglo-American concerns about white flight after independence.
Mugabe's domestic policies, particularly his campaign of farm seizures, had a significant impact on Zimbabwe's international relations. The seizures led to food shortages, famine, and economic decline, resulting in foreign sanctions and widespread criticism of Mugabe's government. The country, once a major food exporter, struggled to feed its own people, and more than half of its population faced starvation. The World Bank described the decline in living standards from 1999 to 2005 as "unprecedented for a country not at war".
Mugabe's response to the growing opposition was to resort to violence and repression. He arrested human rights activists, incarcerated members of his own government on trumped-up charges, and oversaw repeated rigged and bloody elections. His determination to retain power at all costs led to the destruction of the country's prosperity and the flight of a significant portion of its population.
Mugabe's controversial actions and policies drew international condemnation. In 2017, he was briefly appointed as a goodwill ambassador by the World Health Organization (WHO), but this decision was quickly revoked due to criticism from the Zimbabwean opposition and foreign governments, given the poor state of Zimbabwe's health system. Mugabe's ousting in a coup in the same year by members of his own party further highlighted his loss of international support.
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Race and diplomacy in Zimbabwe during the Cold War
The history of diplomacy in Zimbabwe during the Cold War is intricately tied to the process of decolonization and the racial dynamics of the time. From 1960 to 1984, Zimbabwe, then known as Rhodesia, underwent significant political transformations that were influenced by global Cold War tensions and the rivalry between superpowers.
During this period, Zimbabwe experienced the "Rhodesian Crisis," marked by Ian Smith's Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom in 1965. This declaration led to a dramatic rollback of Rhodesia's diplomatic presence worldwide, with representative offices limited to only a few cities by 1979. The crisis also set the stage for the emergence of prominent leaders such as Joshua Nkomo and Robert Mugabe, who navigated the complex diplomatic landscape shaped by Cold War racialized thinking.
The Cold War context played a crucial role in shaping international perceptions of Zimbabwe. Foreign relations bureaucracies in the US, UK, and South Africa contributed to a 'race state' notion of Zimbabwe, which allowed them to turn a blind eye to Mugabe's state crimes in exchange for loyalty to Western powers during the Cold War. This dynamic is explored by Timothy Lewis Scarnecchia in his analysis of the diplomatic history of decolonization in Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwe's foreign policy under Robert Mugabe marked a shift toward closer relations with African, Soviet, and NAM states. This shift in allegiances during the Cold War reflected the complex interplay of global powers and the country's pursuit of strategic alliances. The Soviet-Chinese rivalry also influenced Zimbabwe's liberation struggle, although this aspect remains relatively underexplored in historical analyses.
In conclusion, race and diplomacy in Zimbabwe during the Cold War were characterized by the interplay of decolonization, racialized thinking, and the strategic maneuvers of global superpowers. The country's transition from Rhodesia to Zimbabwe in 1980 was a pivotal moment, shaped by the diplomatic negotiations and rivalries of the time. The legacy of this era continues to inform our understanding of Zimbabwe's place in the world and the impact of Cold War dynamics on post-colonial African nations.
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South Africa's quiet diplomacy approach
South Africa's "quiet diplomacy" approach towards Zimbabwe has been a highly debated topic, with critics questioning whether it was a form of appeasement. This policy, adopted by Thabo Mbeki, has been in place since 2000 and is rooted in the idea of "African solutions for African problems".
Mbeki's approach emphasised respect for state sovereignty and sought to avoid the intra-SADC acrimony that had occurred under Mandela's presidency. A notable example of this was the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1998, where South Africa pursued a diplomatic solution, unlike Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Angola, who sent troops. Mbeki viewed Zimbabwe's crisis as a regional and continental issue and wanted to foster consensus-building between SADC member states.
A key consideration for South Africa's quiet diplomacy was the fear that a destabilised Zimbabwe would trigger refugee flows and economic chaos across the region. As such, South Africa sought to ensure the Zimbabwean economy remained functional through extensions of credit and support in key sectors like power and oil. For instance, Mbeki convinced Mugabe to honour the results of a referendum in exchange for promises of a continuous flow of electrical power and an economic rescue package.
However, critics argue that the failure to condemn violence and authoritarianism in Zimbabwe discredits Mbeki's approach. By 2001, Finance Minister Trevor Manuel attacked the policy, and the SADC summit in Blantyre expressed concern about its impact on the region. In 2002, Mbeki faced the dilemma of deciding on a course of action following the failure of quiet diplomacy, with critics accusing him of defending South Africa's approach as a racist stance.
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Zimbabwe's bilateral relations with other countries
Zimbabwe has historically maintained close diplomatic relations with its neighbouring nations and several other countries across the world.
United States
The United States and Zimbabwe have a shared history as former British colonies, with the US being the first nation to open an embassy in Zimbabwe in 1980, immediately after the latter's independence. The US has provided significant humanitarian and development assistance to Zimbabwe, totalling more than $5 billion since independence, including over $1 billion in the last three years. However, relations have been strained due to allegations of human rights abuses and undemocratic practices by the Zimbabwean government, leading to targeted financial sanctions and visa restrictions on certain individuals. The US has also played a leading role in condemning these alleged assaults on human rights and has imposed measures such as financial sanctions and a ban on transfers of defence items. Despite this, the US remains a significant provider of humanitarian assistance to Zimbabwe, and both countries share a common interest in a stable, peaceful, and democratic Zimbabwe.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom, as Zimbabwe's former colonial ruler, played a significant role in Zimbabwe's path to independence. The UK supported the settlement signed at Lancaster House in 1979, which led to Zimbabwe's independence in 1980. However, relations have had their challenges, with the UK condemning President Mugabe's human rights abuses and undemocratic practices.
Other Countries
Zimbabwe has diplomatic missions and relations with various other countries, including South Africa, Botswana, and Thailand. Harare, the capital of Zimbabwe, currently hosts 51 embassies, and the country maintains relations with several multilateral organisations, such as the African Union.
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Frequently asked questions
Zimbabwe maintains diplomatic relations with various countries worldwide, especially neighboring nations. Zimbabwe's diplomatic presence was reduced after Ian Smith's Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom in 1965. Under Robert Mugabe, Zimbabwe adopted a foreign policy that aligned more closely with African, Soviet, and NAM states.
Decolonization in the 1960s and Zimbabwe's independence in 1980 significantly shaped its diplomacy. The Cold War context, including the rise of Third World political power, also influenced Zimbabwe's foreign relations.
South Africa has historically valued its trade and investment interests in Zimbabwe and pursued a "quiet diplomacy" approach, balancing non-intervention with concerns over human rights violations under the Mugabe regime.
Harare, the capital of Zimbabwe, currently hosts 51 embassies, indicating a significant diplomatic presence in the country.
Zimbabwe became an independent republic within the Commonwealth of Nations in 1980. However, in 2003, it withdrew from the Commonwealth due to international criticism of its human rights record. Zimbabwe has since expressed interest in rejoining, and the British Government has supported this effort.
