Eleanor Finch
Aristotle's constitutional theory is based on his theory of justice, which distinguishes between two senses of justice: universal and particular. In the universal sense, justice means lawfulness and is concerned with the common advantage and happiness of the political community. This conception of justice forms the basis for Aristotle's distinction between correct (just) and deviant (unjust) constitutions. According to Aristotle, a regime is correct if it serves the interests of society as a whole, rather than just the interests of the ruling elite. The correct regimes are monarchy (rule by one for the common good), aristocracy (rule by a few for the common good), and polity (rule by the many for the common good). On the other hand, Aristotle considers deviant regimes to be those that are ruled as if a master was ruling over slaves, with the rulers acting only in their self-interest. The flawed or deviant regimes include tyranny (rule by one in his own interest), oligarchy (rule by a few in their own interest), and democracy (rule by the many in their own interest). Notably, Aristotle classifies democracy as a deviant constitution, arguing that it is a deviation from the constitutional form of government.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Rule by the many | Deviant |
| Rule by the few | Deviant |
| Rule by one man | Deviant |
| Rule by the poor | Deviant |
| Rule by the rich | Deviant |
| Rule by the middle class | Correct |
| Rule by the virtuous few | Correct |
| Rule by one man for the common good | Correct |
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What You'll Learn
Democracy is a deviant constitution
Aristotle's political theory is based on his theory of justice, which distinguishes between two senses of "justice": universal and particular. In the universal sense, "justice" means lawfulness, and is concerned with the common advantage and happiness of the political community. This conception of universal justice underpins Aristotle's distinction between correct (just) and deviant (unjust) constitutions.
According to Aristotle, a regime is correct only if it serves the interests of society overall, rather than just the interests of a ruling elite. The first correct regime is monarchy, or kingship, which occurs when a single ruler governs wisely in the common interest. The second correct regime is aristocracy, or the rule of a virtuous few in the common interest.
In contrast, Aristotle considers democracy to be a deviant form of government. He defines democracy as the rule of the poor masses for their own benefit and at the expense of the wealthy. This is in contrast to aristocracy, which is based on merit and virtue. For Aristotle, democracy is a deviation from the ideal form of government, which he believes is a mixed constitution ruled by a moderate group of citizens between the rich and poor.
Aristotle's classification of democracy as a deviant constitution stems from his belief that those in power should rule in the interest of all citizens, rather than solely for their own advantage. He argues that a correct regime is one that looks to the common advantage and is therefore just, while a deviant regime is one that deviates from this ideal and involves mastery or despotic rule.
While Aristotle considers democracy to be a deviant form of government, he also acknowledges that it is the least bad among the flawed regimes. Modern commentators have debated the relevance of Aristotelian political theory in modern times, with some arguing that modern democracies differ from Aristotle's conception of democracy and are more accurately described as polities, or governments in which the many rule over themselves.
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Monarchy is tyranny
A deviant constitution, as conceptualized by Aristotle, refers to a form of government that has deviated from its ideal type and is characterized by the rule of a single individual, a select few, or the masses in a way that serves their interests rather than the common good. One such deviant constitution is tyranny, which arises from monarchy.
Now, let's explore the idea that "Monarchy is tyranny" through the lens of Aristotle's political thought.
A monarchy, in its ideal form, is a system of government where a single person, usually a king or queen, rules with absolute or sovereign power. This power is often seen as a divine right, and the monarch is expected to rule for life. In a monarchy, the power is typically passed down through a family line, with a clear line of succession. While the monarch may have advisors or a council, the ultimate decision-making power rests with the sovereign.
However, when a monarchy deviates from this ideal form and becomes a tyranny, it takes on a more negative connotation. In Aristotle's view, a tyranny is a perverted form of monarchy. It arises when a monarch becomes a tyrant, exercising power for their own benefit at the expense of the community. A tyrant is a ruler who has absolute power but uses it unjustly, ignoring the laws and customs of the community and ruling solely for their personal gain.
In a tyranny, the ruler's power is not constrained by any formal checks and balances, and they may rule arbitrarily, without regard for the well-being of their subjects. The tyrant's main concern is self-preservation and the maintenance of their own power, often leading to oppressive and brutal rule. The community becomes a tool for the tyrant's personal ambitions, and the people are subjected to their whims and desires.
Aristotle believed that a tyranny was the most deviant and corrupt form of government because it perverted the very essence of monarchy. Monarchy, in its ideal form, is meant to serve the common good, with the monarch acting as a benevolent ruler. However, when a monarch becomes a tyrant, they distort this ideal, as their rule is marked by oppression, self-interest, and the abuse of power. Thus, the statement "Monarchy is tyranny" reflects Aristotle's view that an unchecked monarchy can easily devolve into tyranny, as the concentration of power in a single individual can lead to the corruption of that power.
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Oligarchy is the deviant form of aristocracy
Aristotle's political theory is based on his theory of justice, which distinguishes between universal and particular senses of "justice". In the universal sense, "justice" means "lawfulness", and is concerned with the common advantage and happiness of the political community. This conception of universal justice underpins Aristotle's distinction between correct (just) and deviant (unjust) constitutions.
According to Aristotle, a deviant constitution is one that aims only at the advantage of the rulers, rather than the common advantage of all citizens. Deviant constitutions involve despotic rule, which is inappropriate for a community of free persons.
Aristotle identifies six kinds of regimes, of which three are correct and three are deviant. The correct regimes are monarchy (rule by one man for the common good), aristocracy (rule by a few for the common good), and polity (rule by the many for the common good). The three deviant regimes are tyranny (rule by one man in his own interest), oligarchy (rule by a few in their own interest), and democracy (rule by the many in their own interest).
Oligarchy, or oligarchia in Aristotle's terminology, refers to the rule of a few persons or families. It is a debased form of aristocracy, which also denotes government by the few, but with power vested in the best individuals. In an oligarchy, power is exercised by bad persons for corrupt or selfish purposes, rather than for the greater good.
Aristotle observes that the dominant class in oligarchy is typically the wealthy, who exercise power in the interests of their own class. This is in contrast to aristocracy, where virtue or merit is the defining factor, and power is held by the best members of society. Thus, oligarchy is the deviant form of aristocracy, as it involves rule by a few, not for the common good, but for their own selfish interests.
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Rule by the many in their own interest
Aristotle's political theory is based on his theory of justice, which distinguishes between two senses of "justice": universal and particular. In the universal sense, "justice" means lawfulness, and is concerned with the common advantage and happiness of the political community. This conception of universal justice underpins Aristotle's distinction between correct (just) and deviant (unjust) constitutions.
According to Aristotle, a correct regime is one that serves the interests of society as a whole, rather than just the interests of the ruling elite. He identifies three correct regimes:
- Monarchy (rule by one man for the common good)
- Aristocracy (rule by a few for the common good)
- Polity (rule by the many for the common good)
In contrast, Aristotle considers the following as deviant regimes:
- Tyranny (rule by one man in his own interest)
- Oligarchy (rule by the few in their own interest)
- Democracy (rule by the many in their own interest)
Democracy, or "rule by the demos", is considered by Aristotle to be a deviant form of government because it is characterised by the rule of the poor masses in their own interest, often at the expense of the wealthy. This view may come as a surprise to modern readers, as democracy is often seen positively in today's world. However, Aristotle's concept of democracy is different from our modern understanding. He believed that a correct or ideal form of government required that the governors be the best or "aristoi", and that power should not fall into the hands of those who are less than excellent, as this would lead to a corrupt or deviant form of government.
Aristotle's classification of democracy as a deviant constitution has sparked discussions among modern democratic theorists. Philosopher Julian Baggini argues that our modern democracies are not democracies in Aristotle's sense but polities, where the many rule over themselves. This view suggests that while Aristotle may not have considered our modern democracies as ideal, they may align closer to his concept of a polity, which is a form of "mixed" constitution typified by the rule of the "middle" group of citizens.
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Rule as though a master rules over slaves
Aristotle's political theory is based on his theory of justice, which distinguishes between two senses of "justice": universal and particular. In the universal sense, "justice" means lawfulness and is concerned with the common advantage and happiness of the political community. This conception of universal justice underpins Aristotle's distinction between correct (just) and deviant (unjust) constitutions.
For Aristotle, a correct constitution is one that serves the interests of society as a whole, not just those of the ruling elite. He identifies three correct forms of government:
- Monarchy, or kingship: rule by one man for the common good. Aristotle considers this the "first and most divine" form of regime.
- Aristocracy: rule by a few for the common good. Aristotle argues that this form of government requires those in power to be virtuous and similar to one another.
- Polity: rule by the many for the common good. This is also referred to as a mixed constitution, typified by the rule of the "middle" group of citizens, who are moderately wealthy and fall between the rich and poor.
Deviant constitutions, on the other hand, are those that serve only the interests of the rulers. These include:
- Tyranny: rule by one man in his own interest. Aristotle considers this the worst form of government because it is "monarchy with a view to the advantage of the monarch."
- Oligarchy: rule by a few in their own interest. Aristotle describes it as rule by the wealthy, and argues that it is a short-lived regime.
- Democracy: rule by the many in their own interest. Although modern commentators may disagree, Aristotle considers democracy a deviant form of government because it is ruled as though a master was ruling over slaves.
Aristotle's classification of democracy as a deviant constitution is noteworthy, especially since he considers it the best of the flawed forms of government. He argues that a true democracy, in which the many rule over themselves, is distinct from ochlocracy, or the rule of the mob. Aristotle's ideal form of government is a merit-based aristocracy, where honours are distributed according to virtue. When the rulers are not virtuous, the form of government becomes corrupt or deviant.
In summary, Aristotle's political theory revolves around the idea that a correct constitution serves the common advantage, while a deviant constitution serves only the interests of the rulers. Rule as though a master rules over slaves, as in the case of deviant democracies, is contrary to Aristotle's concept of justice and political rule, which is based on equality and similarity among citizens.
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