Simone Lawson
Puerto Rico's path to self-government has been a long and complex one, marked by shifting political tides and international diplomacy. The island's status has been a topic of debate since the United States acquired it from Spain in 1898, with the Treaty of Paris leaving the exact position of Puerto Rico undefined. This initiated a century-long journey towards self-governance, with the island's relationship with the United States evolving through various acts and referendums. Despite attaining US citizenship in 1917 and achieving a measure of self-government in 1952, the question of Puerto Rico's independence or statehood remains unresolved, with the island's political future still hotly contested in the 21st century.
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What You'll Learn
The Foraker Act of 1900
Puerto Rico's sovereignty was transferred from Spain to the United States in 1899, following the Spanish-American War. The Treaty of Paris did not settle Puerto Rico's exact position in American sovereignty, leaving that decision to the United States Congress. After a brief period of military rule, the Foraker Act of 1900 established a framework for colonial government on the island.
The Foraker Act, officially known as the Organic Act of 1900, was enacted on April 12, 1900, during the first session of the 56th Congress. The Act established a civilian government on the island of Puerto Rico, albeit with limited powers. The Legislative Assembly was given restricted authority, while the Governor and an appointed Executive Council held the majority of the power. The Act also established a judicial system, including a Supreme Court and a United States District Court.
Under the Foraker Act, the people of Puerto Rico were considered American nationals but not citizens. They were given Puerto Rican citizenship and the right to elect both houses of their legislature. The popularly elected upper house advised and consented to the governor's appointment of lower court justices. The President, however, retained the authority to appoint the governor, supreme court justices, and heads of certain departments.
The Foraker Act also provided for representation in Congress through a non-voting Resident Commissioner. While the legislature could pass bills, they required the approval of both the governor and the President to become law. The Act extended certain rights and protections to the people of Puerto Rico, including a bill of rights modelled on the United States Constitution.
The Foraker Act was a significant step towards self-government for Puerto Rico, but it did not provide full autonomy. It was superseded in 1917 by the Jones-Shafroth Act, which granted Puerto Ricans full American citizenship and further expanded their political rights.
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The Jones Act of 1917
Prior to the Jones Act, Puerto Rico had been under U.S. military rule since the island was ceded by Spain to the United States through the Treaty of Paris in 1898. This military administration lasted until 1900, when the Foraker Act established a framework of colonial government, with limited powers granted to the Legislative Assembly and the real authority held by the Governor and an appointed Executive Council.
The Jones Act represented a significant step towards self-government for Puerto Rico, as it provided for greater participation by Puerto Ricans in their own governance. The people of Puerto Rico now had the right to elect both houses of their legislature, although the Governor and certain key officials remained presidential appointees. This partial attainment of self-governance fostered a sense of greater liberty among Puerto Ricans, despite falling short of the full self-determination they had demanded.
The Act also had economic implications for Puerto Rico. The island underwent its first radical economic change, shifting from a mercantilist system under Spanish rule to a capitalist system under the United States. American investments in the sugar and tobacco industries led to unprecedented economic growth, but this growth was not accompanied by significant social progress. Issues such as poverty, malnutrition, illiteracy, and disease remained prevalent, leading to a wave of emigration to the continental United States during the 1930s.
In the decades that followed the passage of the Jones Act, Puerto Rico continued to evolve politically. In 1946, a Puerto Rican was appointed as Governor for the first time. The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was established in 1952, marking the culmination of the island's progression towards self-government. This development was recognised by the United States, which affirmed that the people of Puerto Rico had attained a full measure of self-government, consistent with their status as a U.S. territory.
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The Commonwealth constitution of 1952
Puerto Rico's path to self-government has been a long and complex one, marked by periods of colonial rule, military occupation, and political struggle. The Commonwealth Constitution of 1952, also known as the Puerto Rico Constitution, was a significant milestone in this journey, granting the island a "full measure of self-government" within the framework of its status as a territory of the United States.
The history of Puerto Rico's quest for self-government dates back to the late 19th century when the island was ceded to the United States by Spain through the Treaty of Paris in 1898. This marked the end of Spanish colonial rule and the beginning of Puerto Rico's relationship with the United States. Initially, there was a period of military government, followed by the establishment of a civilian government under the Foraker Act of 1900, which created a framework for colonial governance. While this act provided for a local government with a governor, an executive council, and a judiciary appointed by the US President, it fell short of granting Puerto Ricans full self-governance.
The Jones Act, passed by the US Congress in 1917, brought about the next significant change. This act conferred US citizenship on Puerto Ricans and established a popularly elected legislative branch, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. However, key officials, including the governor, remained presidential appointees, limiting the degree of self-determination.
It wasn't until the promulgation of the Commonwealth Constitution in 1952 that Puerto Rico attained a significant level of self-government. This constitution provided for universal suffrage, free and fair elections, and complete autonomy in economic, cultural, and social affairs. The people of Puerto Rico elected both houses of their legislature, and while the governor was still appointed by the US President, the popularly elected upper house advised and consented to this appointment. Additionally, the Puerto Rican legislature gained the power to repass bills over the governor's veto, although they still required the President's approval to become law.
The establishment of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was a culmination of a progressive expansion of self-government, which had begun with the Foraker Act in 1900. It represented a significant step towards self-determination for the people of Puerto Rico, even though ultimate governance of the island remained with the US Congress and the President. The Commonwealth Constitution affirmed the right of Puerto Ricans to participate effectively in their government and shaped the political landscape of the island, influencing plebiscites and referendums on Puerto Rico's political status in subsequent years.
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The 1991 referendum
Puerto Rico's journey towards self-government has been a long and complex one, marked by various diplomatic manoeuvres and political struggles. While the island attained a degree of self-government in 1897 while under Spanish rule, its transfer to US sovereignty in 1898 marked the beginning of a new political era.
The Treaty of Paris, which ceded the island to the United States, was signed in December 1898 and ratified by the US Senate in February 1899. This marked the end of the island's brief period of military government, which had successfully policed the island, established a public school system, managed government finances, and developed infrastructure. However, the military administration ruled with little regard for the cultural and political sensitivities of Puerto Ricans.
The Foraker Act of 1900 established a framework of colonial government, with limited powers granted to the Legislative Assembly and real authority vested in the Governor and an appointed Executive Council. This marked the beginning of a struggle for political definition that continues to the present day.
In 1917, the Jones Act conferred US citizenship on Puerto Ricans and established a popularly elected legislative branch. However, key officials, including the governor, remained presidential appointees, falling short of the self-determination demanded by Puerto Ricans.
It wasn't until 1952, with the establishment of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, that the island attained a full measure of self-government, consistent with its status as a US territory. This marked the culmination of a steady progression towards self-governance, with universal suffrage and free elections, in which differing political parties could offer candidates, free from interference by the United States.
Despite this apparent self-governance, the ultimate governance of the island is retained by the US Congress and President, as per the US Constitution. As such, the results of plebiscites, including the 1991 referendum, are non-binding opinions, although Congress has expressed support for following the will of the Puerto Rican people.
In conclusion, while Puerto Rico has made significant strides towards self-government, particularly with the establishment of the Commonwealth in 1952, the island's political status remains a complex and evolving issue, with strong opinions on all sides. The 1991 referendum represented another step in this ongoing journey, reflecting the sentiments of the Puerto Rican people and shaping the island's relationship with the United States.
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The 1997 congressional hearing
Puerto Rico's journey towards self-government has been a long and complex one, with various diplomatic moves and congressional hearings shaping its political status over the years. One notable event in this process was the 1997 congressional hearing, during which the former Resident Commissioner and Governor, Carlos Romero Barceló, recalled the letters sent by Representatives Young and Miller to the presidents of Puerto Rico's three political parties. In these letters, Young and Miller emphasised that any plebiscite presented to the people of Puerto Rico should include only options that Congress would be willing to ratify. This hearing highlighted the emotionally charged nature of the issue and the potential for further political division if Congress were to reject the results of a plebiscite.
The 1997 hearing also brought to light the legislative activity taking place in Congress at the time, which was catalysed by the release of the presidential task force's report in December 2005. While Puerto Rico had achieved a significant level of self-government with the establishment of the Commonwealth in 1952, the issue of its political status remained a subject of ongoing discussion and debate. The hearing served as a platform for various stakeholders to express their views and concerns regarding the options for Puerto Rico's future, including statehood, self-government, and independence.
It is important to note that the 1997 congressional hearing was not an isolated event but part of a broader historical context. Puerto Rico's political status has been a matter of contention since the transfer of sovereignty from Spain to the United States in 1898. The Treaty of Paris, signed in December 1898 and ratified in 1899, left the exact position of Puerto Rico undefined, leading to a period of military government and the implementation of the Foraker Act in 1900. This act established a framework for colonial government, with limited powers granted to the Legislative Assembly and the majority of authority held by the Governor and an appointed Executive Council.
The early years of US rule were marked by efforts to "'Americanise" Puerto Rican institutions, language, and political habits, often facing resistance from native leaders who had previously advocated for autonomy under Spanish rule. It wasn't until 1917, with the passing of the Jones Act, that Puerto Ricans received full American citizenship and a popularly elected legislative branch was established. However, key officials, including the governor, remained presidential appointees, falling short of the self-determination demanded by many Puerto Ricans.
Despite the complexities and ongoing debates surrounding Puerto Rico's political status, the 1997 congressional hearing served as a reminder of the ongoing efforts to define and shape the island's relationship with the United States. It highlighted the need for careful consideration of the options presented to the people of Puerto Rico and the potential consequences of their choices. The hearing also underscored the importance of respecting the will of the Puerto Rican people while navigating the complexities of their unique political status.
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Frequently asked questions
Puerto Rico is a territory of the United States with local autonomy. Puerto Ricans have been US citizens since 1917, but they do not have voting representation in the US Federal Government.
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was established on July 25, 1952, marking the attainment of self-government by the people of Puerto Rico. This was the result of a steady progression in the exercise of self-government that began with the first organic act for Puerto Rico enacted by the US Congress in 1900.
The relationship between Puerto Rico and the United States has been described as a commonwealth relationship, with Puerto Rico being a self-governing entity under its constitution. However, the use of the term "commonwealth" has been criticised as misleading and not reflective of the true nature of the relationship. The ultimate governance of Puerto Rico is retained by the US Congress and President.
