The Political System Model: Understanding Political Structures

A political system is a set of formal institutions and practices that define a government's structure. It refers to the organization and structure through which a society governs itself, encompassing various institutions and processes that manage power, authority, and decision-making within a community. Political systems can be classified on a social-cultural axis relative to the liberal values prevalent in the Western world, with the spectrum represented as a continuum between democracies, totalitarian regimes, and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes. A political model is a theoretical framework used to explain and predict the behavior of political systems, analyzing the interactions between different actors in a system, such as governments, interest groups, and citizens.

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Monarchy: A single leader, the monarch, rules the government

A monarchy is a form of government where a single leader, the monarch, reigns as the head of state for life, or until abdication. The monarch is typically a king or queen, and their authority can vary from restricted and symbolic to fully autocratic. Most modern monarchies are constitutional monarchies, where the monarch has limited or no political power, retaining only ceremonial and representational duties.

The succession of monarchs has traditionally been hereditary, with dynasties established over generations. However, monarchies can also be elective or self-proclaimed. In hereditary monarchies, the principal advantage is the immediate continuity of leadership, as evident in the phrase, "The King is dead. Long live the King!". While most monarchs in history have been male, there have also been many female rulers.

The political legitimacy of monarchies is often based on claims of representation of the people and land through kinship, divine right, or other achieved status. Monarchs are usually subject to natural and divine law and the church in matters of religion. The extent of their authority can vary, with some hereditary monarchs holding more political influence than any other authority in the state, even if constrained by a constitutional mandate.

Monarchies are often viewed as stable forms of government, providing a sense of continuity and unity for their nations. The idea of a single ruler reduces political debate, creating a more peaceful nation. Monarchs are typically educated in leadership from a young age and are expected to uphold moral and ethical standards.

While monarchies were the most common form of government until the 20th century, many transitioned into republics after World War I. As of 2024, 43 sovereign nations have a monarch, including 15 Commonwealth realms that share King Charles III as their head of state.

Democracy: Rule by the people, with civil liberties and human rights

A political system is a set of formal legal institutions that constitute a "government" or a "state". Political systems can be classified on a social-cultural axis relative to the liberal values prevalent in the Western world. Yale professor Juan José Linz identifies three main types of political systems: democracies, totalitarian regimes, and authoritarian regimes. Monarchies may be included as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system.

Democracy, derived from the Ancient Greek "dēmokratía", meaning ""rule by the people", is a form of government in which political power is vested in the people or the population of a state. Democracy is characterized by competitive elections, civil liberties, and human rights.

In a democracy, citizens have the freedom to decide what they want to do with their lives, as long as they follow the rules set forth by the government. This includes the freedom to choose one's education, occupation, and where to live. Economic freedom is also important in a democracy, as it helps to develop strong communities and national economies.

To protect citizens from abuse of power by the government, many democracies have a bill of rights that outlines the rights and freedoms of individuals, such as freedom of speech and assembly. These rights are protected by the law, and citizens can seek redress in the courts if they feel their rights have been violated.

Democracy is also characterized by public debate, town meetings, and peaceful protests, which help to inform citizens and encourage political participation. It is essential that all people are treated equally in a democracy, regardless of ethnicity, religion, gender, or sexual orientation. This includes equal access to voting booths and ensuring that every vote counts the same.

Democracy is closely linked to the protection and promotion of human rights. Democracies aim to preserve and promote the dignity and fundamental rights of individuals. International organizations like the UN General Assembly and the former Commission on Human Rights have worked to promote a common understanding of the principles and values of democracy and human rights.

Authoritarianism: Rejection of political plurality, strong central power, reduced civil liberties

Authoritarianism is a political system characterised by a strong central power, the rejection of political pluralism, and reduced civil liberties. It is a system that sits between totalitarianism and democracy on the political spectrum, and it can manifest as a hybrid regime with elements of democracy.

Authoritarian regimes are characterised by a single, central power that preserves the political status quo. This power can be autocratic, with a single ruler, or oligarchic, with a small group holding power. In an autocratic system, a single ruler or dictator controls the government and society through strict and often violent means. A notable example of an autocratic regime is the Soviet political system, in which a centralised communist monoparty held absolute power, with no traces of democracy.

Oligarchies, on the other hand, are characterised by a small group of people holding power, such as land-owning elites with noble titles or aristocrats. Monarchies are a form of oligarchy, where a single person, the monarch, rules, and their power may be checked by a legislative body or an exclusive class, such as aristocrats. Absolute monarchies, where the monarch holds all power, are a form of autocracy.

Authoritarian regimes are marked by a rejection of political pluralism, which means they do not recognise or accept opposition parties or groups. This often results in reduced civil liberties and democracy, as well as a weakened rule of law and separation of powers. Totalitarianism, an extreme form of authoritarianism, completely controls the public and private spheres of society, with all power held by a dictator.

Authoritarian regimes can also be hybrid, with elements of both democratic and autocratic systems. Hybrid regimes may hold regular elections while also engaging in political repression. States with a blurred boundary between democracy and authoritarianism have been described as "hybrid democracies" or "competitive authoritarian".

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Totalitarianism: Extreme authoritarianism, with no opposition and complete societal control

Political systems refer to the set of formal legal institutions that constitute a "government" or a "state". This definition is adopted by many studies of the legal or constitutional arrangements of advanced political orders.

Totalitarianism is a political system and a form of government that prohibits opposition from political parties and disregards and outlaws the political claims of individuals and groups opposed to the state. It is the extreme form of authoritarianism, wherein all socio-political power is held by a dictator. This figure controls the national politics and people of the nation with continual propaganda campaigns that are broadcast by state-controlled and state-aligned private mass communication media.

The totalitarian government uses ideology to control most aspects of human life, such as the political economy of the country, the system of education, the arts, sciences, and private morality of its citizens. The totalitarian worldview provides psychologically comforting and definitive answers about complex socio-political mysteries of the past, present, and future. For example, Nazism proposes that all history is the history of ethnic conflict and the survival of the fittest race. Upon the acceptance of this ideology, the Nazi revolutionary possesses the simplistic moral certainty to justify all other actions by the state.

Totalitarianism is characterized by strong central rule that attempts to control and direct all aspects of individual life through coercion and repression. It does not permit individual freedom. Traditional social institutions and organizations are discouraged and suppressed, making people more willing to be merged into a single unified movement. Totalitarian states typically pursue a special goal to the exclusion of all others, with all resources directed toward its attainment, regardless of the cost.

The concept of totalitarianism was developed in the 1920s by Italian fascists who referred to its "positive goals" for society. However, most Western civilizations and governments quickly rejected the concept of totalitarianism and continue to do so today.

Hybrid regimes: A combination of autocratic and democratic features

A political system can be understood as the process by which laws are made, public resources are allocated, and the relationships between those involved in making these decisions. Political systems can be classified on a social-cultural axis, with democracies on one end and totalitarian regimes on the other, and authoritarian regimes sitting between these two. Hybrid regimes are a type of political system that combines democratic and autocratic features and can be placed on this spectrum between democracies and authoritarian regimes.

Hybrid regimes are often created as a result of an incomplete democratic transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one or vice versa. They can simultaneously hold political repressions and regular elections. For example, while the opposition can organize itself politically, the degree of repression will be less than in the case of dictatorships. Hybrid regimes are also referred to as anocracies, or semi-democracies, and are characterized as dictatorships with a democratic institution of legislature. They are unique in that they are neither democracies nor autocracies but a blend of both.

The term "hybrid regime" arises from a polymorphic view of political regimes that oppose the dichotomy of autocracy or democracy. Scholars vary in their definitions of hybrid regimes, with some arguing that deficient democracies and deficient autocracies are examples of hybrid regimes, while others argue that hybrid regimes combine characteristics of both democratic and autocratic regimes. According to Professor Matthijs Bogaards, hybrid regimes are not diminished subtypes but exhibit a mixture of characteristics of both basic types.

Hybrid regimes have been on the rise since the end of the Cold War, with former democracies like Venezuela and former autocracies like Russia moving towards this "in-between" position. In 2008, 32% of all countries were considered hybrid regimes, challenging the notion that democratic transitions and consolidations are inevitable. Hybrid regimes are commonly found in developing countries with abundant natural resources, such as petro-states. While these regimes experience civil unrest, they can also be relatively stable and long-lasting.

The stability of hybrid regimes depends on the ruling elite avoiding severe rights abuses and not stealing or cancelling elections. Additionally, they must ensure that any rights abuses are not well publicized, as this could lead to more stir among the people they rule over. Hybrid regimes can develop from populism or can themselves develop populism to explain and justify their democratic shortcomings.

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