Simone Lawson
Antarctica is known for its freezing temperatures, little sunlight and moisture, poor soil quality, and short growing period, making it extremely difficult for plants to survive. However, certain plant species have evolved to withstand these harsh conditions. Antarctica's vegetation primarily comprises lichens, mosses, and algae, which form the foundation for larger plant life. The continent's unique flora is a subject of scientific interest, with researchers studying its resilience in the face of climate change and the potential for new plant species to emerge.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of plant species | 2 |
| Native plant species | Lichens and mosses |
| Extant flora | 100 mosses, 25-30 liverworts, 700 terrestrial and aquatic algal species |
| Lichens | 250 species |
| Vascular plants | 26 species in South Georgia |
| Non-native species | 15 species in South Georgia |
| Woody plants | Conifers, Angiosperms |
| Conifers | Cupressinoxylon, Podocarpoxylon |
| Angiosperms | Nothofagoxylon, Myrceugenelloxylon, Weinmannioxylon, Hedycaryoxylon, Atherospermoxylon |
| Antarctica's former climate | Warmer and supported flora well into the Neogene |
| Former flora | Forests of podocarps and southern beech |
| Former supercontinent | Gondwana |
| Current vegetation area | 44.2 km² |
| Vegetation area as % of ice-free area | 0.12% |
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What You'll Learn
- Antarctica's vegetation is predominantly composed of lichens and mosses
- The continent's flora is a distinct community of vascular plants
- Antarctica's unique terrestrial ecosystems are changing due to climate change
- The continent's flora once included forests of podocarps and southern beech
- Antarctica's extant flora includes mosses, liverworts, and terrestrial and aquatic algal species
Antarctica's vegetation is predominantly composed of lichens and mosses
However, some plants have evolved specifically to live in these conditions and have thrived where no others have been able to. Lichens and mosses, which are just a few centimetres tall, are among the organisms that have been able to adapt to the harsh Antarctic environment. They provide a surface for other organisms to grow on, and once they have made themselves a home, even larger organisms may show up and eventually the plants take hold. Their seeds, if stuck in a soft and moist mossy cushion, proliferate and grow.
There are around 250 types of lichens and 100 types of mosses in Antarctica. These lichens and mosses are an important part of the Antarctic ecosystem as they provide a surface for other plants to grow on. They also play a crucial role in the distribution, biomass, and diversity of vegetation in Antarctica, reflecting the immediate environmental conditions of their habitats. Antarctica's unique terrestrial ecosystems are changing with a significant impact on the local vegetation, and the detection of such large-scale shifts in the ecosystem remains a challenge.
The continent of Antarctica was once part of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana, which gradually broke up by plate tectonics starting 110 million years ago. The separation of South America from Antarctica 30–35 million years ago allowed the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to form, which isolated Antarctica climatically and caused it to become much colder. The Antarctic flora subsequently died out in Antarctica but is still found in other parts of the world that were once part of Gondwana, such as South America, Australasia, and India.
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The continent's flora is a distinct community of vascular plants
Antarctica's flora is a distinct community of vascular plants that evolved on the supercontinent of Gondwana millions of years ago. Antarctica was once part of Gondwana, which gradually broke up by plate tectonics starting 110 million years ago. The separation of South America from Antarctica 30–35 million years ago allowed the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to form, causing Antarctica to become much colder and less hospitable for plants.
Today, Antarctica's flora resides in several now-separated areas of the Southern Hemisphere, including southern South America, southernmost Africa, New Zealand, Australia, and New Caledonia. Antarctica's extant flora consists of around 100 mosses, 25-30 liverworts, and about 700 terrestrial and aquatic algal species, in addition to approximately 250 lichens. Lichens form a major part of the vegetation in continental Antarctica, though they are less diverse and grow more slowly than in maritime Antarctica.
The flora of Africa and India retain few remnants of the Antarctic flora. Australia, which drifted north and became drier, still has some Antarctic flora along its east coast and Tasmania, though most of the continent became dominated by Acacia, Eucalyptus, and Casuarina, as well as xeric shrubs and grasses. Human activity in Australia, including the use of fire, further reduced the range of Antarctic flora to less than 2% of the continent's land area.
Antarctica's unique terrestrial ecosystems are changing significantly, with rising temperatures causing vegetation to spread at an alarming rate. Satellite imagery has revealed that the area covered by plants increased by almost 14 times over 35 years, a trend that will spur rapid change in Antarctic ecosystems. The detection of such large-scale shifts in vegetation can be challenging, but remote sensing technologies are improving and will be important for monitoring in the future.
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Antarctica's unique terrestrial ecosystems are changing due to climate change
Antarctica's unique ecosystems are fragile and sensitive to disturbance. They are composed of a distinct community of vascular plants, mosses, lichens, liverworts, and algae that have evolved to survive in the continent's extreme conditions. Antarctica's flora once included forests of podocarps and southern beech, but as the continent cooled, its flora died out, with only a few remnants surviving in some areas.
Today, Antarctica's terrestrial ecosystems are facing complex environmental changes due to climate change and human activity. The Antarctic Peninsula, for example, has warmed by over 3°C in the last 50 years. This warming has the potential to increase primary productivity and allow certain types of lichens, mosses, and liverworts to expand their range into previously inaccessible parts of the Peninsula. While this may seem like a positive development, it could also lead to the invasion of non-native species, which is considered a greater threat than climate change itself. Non-native species can establish themselves through "ecosystem engineering," introducing new predatory or pollinating guilds and altering ecosystem services. Some of these changes may be irreversible, including the threat of local or complete extinction of native endemic invertebrate species.
In addition to climate change, increased human activity in Antarctica, such as inter-regional logistical routes, is reducing barriers to the invasion of non-native species. Accidental transfers of non-native species into the continent likely occur more frequently than is recorded, and some have already established themselves in protected environments within station facilities. The introduction of alien (non-endemic) animals, such as rats, cats, and rabbits, on sub-Antarctic islands can also cause ecological problems.
The unique biota of Antarctica has adapted to the region's extreme conditions over millions of years, and it is now facing the challenge of environmental change. The terrestrial biota is expected to show increases in productivity, population sizes, and ranges of individual species, and community complexity. However, the establishment of non-native organisms and the direct impacts of human activity pose significant threats to these already fragile ecosystems.
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The continent's flora once included forests of podocarps and southern beech
Antarctica's flora once included forests of podocarps and southern beech. This was when the continent was part of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana, which gradually broke up by plate tectonics starting 110 million years ago. The separation of South America from Antarctica 30–35 million years ago allowed the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to form, which isolated Antarctica climatically and caused it to become much colder. The Antarctic flora subsequently died out in Antarctica, but is still an important component of the flora of southern Neotropic (South America) and Australasian realms, which were also former parts of Gondwana.
Podocarps are conifers in the family Podocarpaceae. The woody plants of the Antarctic flora include conifers in the families Podocarpaceae, Araucariaceae and the subfamily Callitroideae of Cupressaceae, and angiosperms such as the families Proteaceae, Griseliniaceae, Cunoniaceae, Atherospermataceae, and Winteraceae. There are two conifer and at least seven angiosperm morphotypes recorded in the Antarctica palaeoflora. Conifers include Cupressinoxylon, which is the more common, and Podocarpoxylon.
Southern beech, also known as Nothofagus, is a genus of 43 species of trees and shrubs native to the Southern Hemisphere in southern South America (Chile, Argentina) and east and southeast Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, and New Caledonia. The species are ecological dominants in many temperate forests in these regions. Some species are reportedly naturalised in Germany and Great Britain. The genus has a rich fossil record of leaves, cupules, and pollen, with fossils extending into the late Cretaceous period and occurring in Australia, New Zealand, Antarctica, and South America. The leaves are toothed or entire, evergreen or deciduous. The fruit is a small, flattened or triangular nut, borne in cupules containing one to seven nuts. Many individual trees are extremely old, and at one time, some populations were thought to be unable to reproduce in present-day conditions where they were growing, except by suckering (clonal reproduction), being remnant forest from a cooler time.
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Antarctica's extant flora includes mosses, liverworts, and terrestrial and aquatic algal species
Antarctica's flora includes mosses, liverworts, and terrestrial and aquatic algal species. Lichens, which are formed in part by algae, are also prevalent in Antarctica. These organisms are well adapted to the extreme Antarctic environment, which has low temperatures and a short growing season.
Mosses are small plants with no tissue to conduct water and nutrients, limiting their size. They appear as little "cushions" or "buttons" and grow in ice-free areas of Antarctica, including the coast, isolated mountain peaks, mountain ranges, dry valleys, exposed coastal fringes, and offshore subantarctic islands. Some species even grow underwater in lakes. Mosses have been found as far south as 84° 30′ (Ceratodon purpureus at Mt. Kyffin, Southern Victoria Land). There are about 100 species of mosses in Antarctica, and they are the dominant plant type in the continent. They must survive nine to ten months lying dormant under winter snow, and they can tolerate very low temperatures and substantial dryness for prolonged periods.
Liverworts, or hepatics, are another type of bryophyte, a group that includes mosses. There are 25 to 30 species of liverworts in Antarctica. Like mosses, they are typically small, leafy plants that are either upright or creeping.
Algae are an extremely diverse group of aquatic plants that range in size from single cells to seaweeds the size of trees. They are found in the waters, ice, and land throughout Antarctica. There are around 700 recorded species of algae in Antarctica, including marine phytoplankton, which are microscopic floating single cells with a diverse range of sizes, shapes, and lifestyles. Snow algae, which bloom along the coast of Antarctica, are likely to be biogeochemically important as a terrestrial carbon sink.
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Frequently asked questions
Antarctica's vegetation is mostly composed of lichens and mosses. There are around 250 types of lichens and 100 types of mosses in Antarctica. Antarctica's flora also includes vascular plants, conifers, and angiosperms.
Antarctica's vegetation encounters some of the harshest living conditions on the planet, including extremely cold temperatures, little sunlight and moisture, poor soil quality, and a short growing period.
Antarctica is experiencing some of the fastest climate change in the world. As a result, its vegetation is spreading at an alarming rate. Satellite imagery has revealed that the area covered by plants increased by almost 14 times over 35 years.
Antarctica was once part of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana, which gradually broke up by plate tectonics starting 110 million years ago. Antarctica's climate was warmer millions of years ago and was able to support a wider variety of flora, including forests of podocarps and southern beech.
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