Simone Lawson
The human body undergoes decomposition in five stages: fresh, bloat, active decay, advanced decay, and dry/skeletonized. The rate of decomposition varies depending on environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, and oxygen availability. The process involves autolysis and putrefaction, leading to changes in colour, texture, and the presence of insects. In the initial stages, the body may exhibit a greenish tinge due to hydrogen sulfide reacting with hemoglobin. During the bloated stage, the body swells due to accumulated gases, and skin changes such as blisters and slippage occur. Advanced decay is characterised by discolouration, often turning black, and putrefaction, where tissues and cells break down. The final dry/skeletonized stage is influenced by the climate, with mummification occurring in dry conditions, resulting in dark, dry, and leathery skin.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First stage of decomposition | Bloated stage, caused by putrefaction |
| Second stage of decomposition | Decay, skin breaks, and maggots hatch and feed on body tissues |
| Third stage of decomposition | Postdecay, the body is reduced to skin, cartilage, and bone |
| Final stage of decomposition | Skeletal stage, the body is reduced to a skeleton and sometimes hair |
| Mummification | Skin becomes dark, dry, and leathery |
| Adipocere formation | Formation of a yellowish to gray-colored waxy substance |
| Advanced decay | Remains have discolored and often blackened |
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What You'll Learn
Greenish tinge due to hydrogen sulfide
Decomposition is the process by which the organs and complex molecules of animal and human bodies break down into simple organic matter over time. The rate of decomposition of human remains can vary due to environmental factors such as temperature, burning, humidity, and the availability of oxygen. Other factors include body size, clothing, and the cause of death.
One of the signs of decomposition is the body assuming a greenish tinge. This occurs due to the accumulation of gases within body cavities, one of which is hydrogen sulfide. This gas reacts with the hemoglobin in the blood to form sulfhemoglobin, a greenish pigment.
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a colorless chalcogen-hydride gas that is toxic, corrosive, and flammable. It has a characteristic foul odor of rotten eggs and is toxic to humans and most other animals by inhibiting cellular respiration. When inhaled or ingested in high amounts, it rapidly damages organs and can even cause death.
The human body produces small amounts of hydrogen sulfide, which is used as a signaling molecule. It is often produced from the microbial breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen, such as in swamps and sewers, through a process called anaerobic digestion.
In addition to its role in the decomposition process, hydrogen sulfide can also be dangerous to humans. Exposure to high concentrations of this gas can lead to serious health issues and even death. It is important to take safety precautions when working in environments where hydrogen sulfide may be present to prevent accidental exposure and potential harm.
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Dark, dry skin in mummification
Decomposition is the process in which the organs and complex molecules of animal and human bodies break down into simple organic matter over time. The rate of decomposition is influenced by environmental factors such as temperature, burning, humidity, and oxygen availability. The climate and temperature impact the rate of decomposition, with higher temperatures accelerating the process and cooler temperatures slowing it down.
Mummification is a type of decomposition that occurs when a corpse is in a hot and dry environment. The skin becomes dark, dry, and leathery in appearance due to the evaporation of the body's liquid compounds, and the complete elimination of water from the body and skin. This process can take several weeks to 6-12 months.
The skin, composed of 70% water, dries out completely during mummification. This drying out is facilitated by specific ambient conditions that delay or block bacterial action and insect invasion, which reduces the speed of decomposition. The internal organs also undergo changes, becoming dry, structureless masses that may appear brownish-black.
The study of mummified skin, known as paleodermatology, offers scientific insights into ancient skin conditions and the living circumstances of past civilizations. For example, a fifteenth-century mummy discovered in Daejeon, Korea, revealed the presence of collagen fibres in the dermis of the mummified skin through Masson's trichrome staining technique.
Cultural or artificial mummification involves the deliberate preservation of remains by unnatural means, such as embalming or immersion in preservative fluids. In contrast, natural mummification occurs accidentally due to specific environmental conditions, such as low humidity and high temperatures, that inhibit bacterial growth and insect activity.
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Blackened remains in advanced decay
Decomposition is the process in which the organs and complex molecules of animal and human bodies break down into simple organic matter over time. The five stages of decomposition are typically recognised as fresh, bloat, active decay, advanced decay, and dry/skeletonized. The rate of decomposition varies due to environmental factors such as temperature, burning, humidity, and the availability of oxygen, as well as other factors like body size, clothing, and the cause of death.
During the advanced decay stage, most of the remains have discoloured and often blackened. Putrefaction, where tissues and cells break down and liquify as the body decays, is almost complete. The body releases approximately 32 grams of nitrogen, 10 grams of phosphorus, 4 grams of potassium, and 1 gram of magnesium for every kilogram of dry body mass, significantly altering the soil chemistry around it. The soft tissue of the remains typically collapses in on itself, and the remains are often dried out and begin to skeletonize.
The climate and temperature impact the rate of decomposition. Higher temperatures accelerate physiological reactions in the body after death, speeding up decomposition. Cooler temperatures may slow the rate of decomposition, and in winter, some bodies may skip the bloat stage entirely. Bacterial growth is significantly reduced at temperatures below 4°C.
The presence of insects and scavengers can also contribute to decay, especially in aquatic environments. Insect activity can provide a measure of the minimum time since death, as the size and development stage of maggots, for example, indicate how long it has been since the body began to decay.
The formation of adipocere, or grave wax, may also occur during decomposition. Adipocere is a yellowish to gray-coloured waxy substance that can preserve the corpse wholly or partially. It forms in environments with high moisture, such as flooded burials or submersion in water. In contrast, arid environments will result in mummification, where the corpse becomes dark, dry, and leathery in appearance.
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Bloating from putrefactive gases
Decomposition is the process by which the organs and complex molecules of animal and human bodies break down into simple organic matter over time. The rate of decomposition of human remains can vary due to environmental factors, such as temperature, burning, humidity, and the availability of oxygen. Other factors include body size, clothing, and the cause of death.
Putrefaction is one of the seven stages of decomposition. It is the fifth stage of death, following pallor mortis, livor mortis, algor mortis, and rigor mortis. Putrefaction is a microorganism-driven process that results in foul odor, skin discoloration, purge, and bloating. Various decompositional gases, including methane, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen, cause the body to bloat. The bacterial digestion of cellular proteins weakens the body's tissues. As the proteins are continuously broken down into smaller components, bacteria excrete gases and organic compounds, such as putrescine and cadaverine, which carry the noxious odor of rotten flesh.
Initially, the gases of putrefaction are constrained within the body cavities. However, they eventually diffuse through the adjacent tissues and into the circulatory system. The visual result of gaseous tissue infiltration is the notable bloating of the torso and limbs. The increased internal pressure from the rising volume of gas further stresses, weakens, and separates the tissues constraining the gas. In the course of putrefaction, the skin tissues of the body eventually rupture and release the bacterial gas.
The bloated stage of decomposition is characterized by the swelling of body parts, including organs and soft tissues, due to the accumulation of putrefactive gases or other decompositional products. It usually starts in the abdomen and then slowly affects other parts of the body, including the face, breasts, and genitals. During this stage, skin changes such as blisters and slippage may occur. Skin slippage at the extremities is known as degloving.
The rate of putrefaction depends on various factors, including the environment, the age at which death occurred, the overall structure and condition of the body, the cause of death, and external injuries arising before or after death. For example, the rate of putrefaction is greatest in air, followed by water, soil, and earth. Refrigeration at a morgue or funeral home can slow the process, allowing for burial without embalming a few days after death.
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Yellowish-grey adipocere formation
Adipocere, or corpse wax, is a post-mortem phenomenon that occurs during the decomposition of the human body. It is a waxy substance that forms due to the incomplete anaerobic decomposition of soft tissues, particularly in environments with high moisture content and a lack of oxygen. This process is known as adipocere formation, and it can result in the preservation of the corpse or certain parts of it.
The process of adipocere formation involves the transformation of fatty tissues into a waxy substance through the hydrolysis of fat and the release of fatty acids. This transformation is facilitated by the presence of putrefactive organisms, with Clostridium welchii being the most active contributor. Adipocere typically develops first in subcutaneous tissues, commonly in areas such as the cheeks, breasts, and buttocks. However, it can also occur in internal organs and bone marrow cavities if there is sufficient fat content.
The rate at which adipocere forms can vary between different bodies and even different areas of the same body. This variation is influenced by factors such as the pH, presence of oxygen, types of bacteria present, and water flow in the environment. Additionally, the fat composition of the individual plays a role, with women, infants, and overweight individuals being more prone to adipocere transformation due to their generally higher body fat percentage.
The presence of adipocere can have implications for forensic investigations. While it can aid in preserving the corpse, making it possible to identify victims and gather evidence, the estimation of the post-mortem interval is more challenging due to the temperature-dependent nature of adipocere formation. Adipocere formation is accelerated by warmth, but extreme temperatures can impede the process. Therefore, other factors, such as the presence of insects and the stage of their development, must also be considered when determining the PMI.
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