Simone Lawson
The Civil War in the United States was not just a conflict between the North and the South, or freedom versus slavery, but also a complex struggle between various classes and social groups within each region. The post-war era, known as the Reconstruction era, was a critical period in American history, marked by significant social, political, and legal changes as the nation grappled with the abolition of slavery, the reintegration of the Confederate States, and the emergence of new social classes. The war itself was a result of class conflict between the industrial North and the agrarian South, but it also exposed the internal class tensions within each region, including the struggle between the wealthy elite and the working class, and the conflict between different racial and ethnic groups vying for power and status.
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What You'll Learn
The wealthy Protestant elite
The post-Civil War period in the US was marked by significant social and economic changes, including the emergence of a wealthy Protestant elite class. This group, often referred to as White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs), constituted a powerful and influential segment of American society. While the Civil War itself was a conflict primarily between an industrialised, free-labour North and a rural, slaveholding South, it also brought to the fore internal class tensions within each region.
The post-war era witnessed the continued dominance of WASPs in American society, culture, and politics. They were known for their commitment to the ideals of the Enlightenment and their establishment of exclusive social clubs and organisations. Ivy League universities, expensive private prep schools, and certain colleges were historically associated with this group, perpetuating their influence and exclusivity.
However, it is important to note that the social influence of wealthy WASPs began to wane around the 1960s, with the rise of other ethnic groups and the promotion of more inclusive ideals for national identity. Despite this shift, WASPs continued to hold significant power in finance, politics, and philanthropy. They were known for their understated leadership style and their pride in manners, hygiene, and discipline.
The decline in WASP dominance was attributed to various factors, including the increasing importance of motivation and training over ethnicity and lineage in leadership selection, as well as the diversification of elite schools and universities. The post-World War II era also played a role, with the GI Bill expanding access to higher education for new ethnic groups, leading to their increased presence in the country's cultural, political, and economic arenas.
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The industrial working class
In the post-Civil War era, the United States witnessed a period of rapid industrialization, with old industries expanding and new sectors emerging, such as petroleum refining, steel manufacturing, and electrical power. This transformation significantly impacted the social landscape, giving rise to a new class of wealthy industrialists and a burgeoning middle class. However, it also resulted in the expansion of the blue-collar industrial working class, comprising millions of newly arrived immigrants and migrants from rural areas.
The post-war industrial working class was also characterized by a sense of strife and conflict with the elite classes. The growing industrialization had widened the class divide, with the working class often at odds with the wealthy Protestant elite. This tension was further exacerbated by the issue of slavery and its abolition, with fears among the lower classes that emancipation would undermine the labor movement and drive wages down. The conflict between the industrial working class and the elites was never fully resolved, even after the Civil War ended.
Furthermore, the industrial working class experienced significant changes in their daily lives due to technological advancements. They witnessed a shift from candles to kerosene lamps and eventually to electric light bulbs. Their transportation evolved from horse-drawn carriages to steam-powered locomotives and then to electric trolley cars and automobiles. These technological innovations transformed how people worked and where they lived, with many migrating from rural areas to cities in search of better job opportunities.
The entertainment landscape also changed for the industrial working class during this period. P. T. Barnum's American Museum in New York City, which opened in 1841, catered to the working class's demand for escape and cheap amusements. Barnum exhibited human and animal oddities, such as the "Feejee Mermaid," drawing millions of working-class wage earners in the mid-19th century.
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The planter class
The labor force on these plantations was primarily made up of enslaved people and indentured servants. Initially, indentured servants from Europe provided labor, but they were eventually replaced by enslaved Africans brought over through the Atlantic slave trade. This shift contributed to the development of the triangular trade, where European goods were exchanged for slaves in Africa, who were then sold to colonists in the Americas. The majority of these enslaved Africans were purchased by the planter class, who often subjected them to harsh treatment and cruel living conditions.
In the context of the American Civil War, the planter class was predominantly associated with the South, where slavery and rural landownership prevailed. The Confederate draft legislation, which exempted men owning 20 or more slaves, further highlighted class tensions. However, the war had a significant impact on the planter class, leading to their decline as a distinct aristocracy. The bitter disappointment and frustration experienced by the planters during and after the war resulted in a high mortality rate, and by 1870, they had merged with the rising poor whites.
Despite this decline, some argue that the planter elite survived and even thrived in the post-war era. They adapted to a new "planter-merchant" class, maintaining their economic foundations and increasing their landholdings. The persistence of old elite families remained relatively unchanged, indicating a level of resilience within the planter class. However, the specific dynamics of their transformation and the extent of their survival are not entirely clear, and further scientific studies are needed to understand this societal shift fully.
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Free African Americans
The Civil War was a conflict between an industrializing, free-labour North and a rural, slaveholding South. However, it is important to note that there were also internal tensions within each region, with various groups vying for power and influence. One of the groups involved in this power struggle were free African Americans.
During the Civil War, African American leaders played a significant role in recruiting Black men into the Union armed forces. By the end of the war, more than 186,000 African Americans had served in the Union army, despite facing discrimination in pay, rations, equipment, and assignments, as well as hostility from Confederate troops.
After the war, the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863, the Thirteenth Amendment (1865), and the Civil Rights Act of 1866, legally freed all slaves in the United States and granted African Americans the right to vote, acquire land, seek employment, and use public accommodations. However, opponents of these changes quickly worked to undermine them, and the Reconstruction period (1865-1877) was a time of disappointment and frustration for African Americans, especially in the South.
During Reconstruction, Southern states enacted Black Codes, which restricted the movement and opportunities of freed slaves, often forcing them to work for low wages on plantations, sometimes for their former masters. Additionally, social attitudes remained hostile towards free African Americans, and racial segregation was enforced through laws and practices, such as the Jim Crow laws, which segregated public places and schools.
Despite these challenges, some progress was made. For example, Northern teachers, missionaries, churches, and schools worked to provide educational opportunities for emancipated African Americans, and some African Americans were able to acquire land and seek employment, despite the obstacles they faced. Overall, the post-Civil War period was a complex and tumultuous time for free African Americans, marked by both gains and setbacks in their struggle for equality and social mobility.
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Poor whites
The idea of "freedom for poor whites" became commonplace in the postbellum South, with historians using the term "emancipation" to describe their situation. Poor whites were now able to enjoy the privileges of whiteness, and many experienced newfound freedoms and socio-economic benefits. However, these gains often came at the expense of freed Black people, and as poor whites gradually became included in the spoils of white privilege, racial lines hardened.
During Reconstruction, many poor whites retained their hostility towards the planter elite, even forming alliances with those who had been enslaved. Policies such as homestead protections helped poor people regardless of race, and poor whites sought these alliances with freed Black people. However, this bi-racial alliance had little chance of long-term survival due to intense vigilante violence from groups like the Ku Klux Klan. As a result, poor whites quickly learned to conform to racial segregation.
The ruling planter class in the South viewed poor whites as a threat, especially due to the potential unity between poor whites and enslaved Africans, which altered the political economy of the region. Poor whites in the Deep South lived hard lives, enduring cyclical poverty, hunger, and want, as they competed with enslaved people in the labour market. Poor whites were also kept illiterate before the Civil War, as slave owners did not want them teaching Black people how to read, and to prevent ideas about abolitionism and workers' rights from spreading.
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