Jonah Patel
Diplomacy is a complex and nuanced aspect of international relations, involving the art of negotiation, dialogue, and coalition-building to resolve disputes and foster cooperation between states. However, the practice of diplomacy has its limitations and challenges. The law and behaviour governing diplomacy remain uncertain and uncodified, with contradictions and ambiguities. The line between diplomatic observation and interference can be blurred, and the interpretation of interference by the receiving state can create tensions. Additionally, deficiencies in language skills and regional knowledge among diplomatic personnel can hinder effective diplomacy, as can inconsistent policies and a lack of mutual understanding. The actions of political leaders, such as threats and intimidation, can also undermine diplomatic efforts and strain relationships, as seen in the case of Trump's approach to Latin America. Exploring the limits of diplomacy highlights the delicate balance between peaceful negotiation and the potential for coercion or the use of force in statecraft.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Diplomatic language | Has changed over the years. For example, it was considered improper to use the word "damn" 80 years ago. |
| Diplomatic interference | Includes representation, protection of interests, reporting, and involvement in human rights in the receiving state. |
| Diplomatic practice and behaviour | Uncertain and uncodified, with many contradictions. |
| Foreign policy | Generally enunciated publicly, while diplomacy is conducted in confidence. |
| Diplomatic capabilities | Deficiencies in language skills and regional knowledge in the U.S. diplomatic corps and military have been observed. |
| Diplomatic correspondence | May be withheld or redacted to avoid embarrassment or negative repercussions. |
| Transactional diplomacy | Regional leaders in Latin America crave genuine give-and-take relationships, rather than unilateral demands or transactional diplomacy. |
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What You'll Learn
Diplomatic interference in state practice
Diplomacy is the primary tool for the peaceful resolution of disputes between states and the building of an international order that encourages cooperation. It is distinct from foreign policy, which is set by political leaders, although diplomats may advise on this.
Diplomatic interference can also occur through representation, protection of interests, reporting, and involvement in human rights issues in the receiving state. Other areas of potential interference include lobbying the government, partisan behaviour, propagating the views of diplomats or the sending government in the media, areas of legitimate funding, diplomatic asylum, and the use of threats, insults, or criticism.
The practice of diplomacy has limitations and shortcomings. For example, deficiencies in language skills and regional knowledge can hinder the effectiveness of diplomats and their ability to accurately report and analyse situations in the host country. This was evident in the case of a British diplomat in Afghanistan who, despite lacking language skills and regional knowledge, submitted daily reports that supported the official British government's narrative of progress in Afghanistan's transition to democracy.
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Diplomatic language and regional knowledge
Language is a fundamental aspect of diplomacy, and the processes of diplomacy—communicating, negotiating, reaching and formulating agreements, collecting, creating, transmitting and recording knowledge—all depend on it. The study of diplomatic language can lead to a better understanding of how diplomacy works and why some diplomatic processes are more successful than others.
The choice of language is important, and the use of diplomatic signalling, rhetorical patterns, and ambiguities can have serious consequences if signals are misinterpreted. As such, awareness of cultural differences and the conscious and considered use of signals is necessary. The use of language in diplomacy has evolved over time, and the dominant language used in diplomacy has historically been influenced by the political, strategic, economic, and cultural dominance of a particular power in international relations. For example, German is the dominant language in the Austrian Foreign Ministry, and they appreciate it when foreign representatives speak German.
Diplomats often need to communicate in multiple languages, and knowledge of English, French, Russian, and Arabic is particularly useful for international organisations in Vienna. However, there is no single "diplomatic language", and the choice of language depends on the context and the audience. The use of translators or international synthetic languages like Esperanto has been suggested, but these solutions have their own disadvantages and are not widely implemented.
Regional knowledge is also crucial in diplomacy, as it helps diplomats navigate cultural differences and understand the political, economic, and strategic interests of the countries they are dealing with. A lack of understanding of regional dynamics can lead to diplomatic tone-deafness, as seen in the case of the Trump administration's Latin America strategy, which failed to grasp the region's growing agency and ability to pursue policies independent of the United States.
In conclusion, diplomatic language and regional knowledge are essential tools for diplomats, enabling them to effectively communicate, negotiate, and navigate complex international relations. By understanding the nuances of language and regional dynamics, diplomats can avoid misunderstandings, build relationships, and achieve successful diplomatic outcomes.
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Foreign policy and national interests
Diplomacy is often confused with foreign policy, but the terms are not synonymous. Foreign policy is set by political leaders, who may be advised by diplomats, military officers, and intelligence officers. It establishes goals, prescribes strategies, and sets broad tactics to achieve those goals. Foreign policy is generally enunciated publicly and its primary purpose is to further a state's interests, which are derived from geography, history, economics, and the distribution of international power.
Diplomacy is the chief instrument of foreign policy, but it is not the only one. Other tools available to foreign policymakers include secret agents, subversion, war, or other forms of violence. Diplomacy is the principal substitute for the use of force or underhanded means in statecraft. It is how comprehensive national power is applied to the peaceful adjustment of differences between states. It is overtly nonviolent, but it can be coercive, backed by the threat to apply punitive measures or to use force. Its primary tools are international dialogue and negotiation, conducted by accredited envoys.
Diplomacy builds and maintains coalitions that deter or make war. It disrupts the alliances of enemies and sustains the passivity of potentially hostile powers. It forms, strengthens, and sustains the peace that follows conflict. Over the long term, diplomacy strives to build an international order conducive to the nonviolent resolution of disputes and expanded cooperation between states.
Diplomats are the primary practitioners of diplomacy, but they are far from the only ones. They are specialists in carrying messages and negotiating adjustments in relations and the resolution of quarrels between states and peoples. However, there are significant problems with the institutions of diplomacy, particularly in the United States. Recent studies have revealed dangerous shortfalls in language skills and regional knowledge in both the U.S. diplomatic corps and the U.S. military. In Afghanistan, 73% of officers in language-designated positions did not meet language proficiency requirements. Similar deficiencies were found in Iraq, where 57% of officers lacked sufficient language skills.
These deficiencies can have serious consequences for diplomatic practice. For example, British diplomat Carne Ross volunteered for duty in Afghanistan in 2001 despite having no language skills and little regional knowledge. He was often confined to the security of the British embassy in Kabul, and yet he still submitted daily reports and "analysis" that supported the official British government’s narrative of progress in Afghanistan’s transition to democracy.
In Latin America, the Trump administration's failure to grasp the region's growing agency and ability to pursue policies independent of the United States resulted in diplomatic tone-deafness. Washington demanded that countries steer away from China without offering any meaningful economic or political alternatives, essentially asking them to forgo billions of dollars’ worth of critical investments and strategic partnerships. Trump's threats and intimidation tactics cannot provide a stable foundation for long-term U.S. primacy in the region.
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Transactional diplomacy
The key actors in transactional diplomacy include governments, businesses, and non-state actors. Governments negotiate trade deals, security agreements, or diplomatic recognitions, while businesses engage in transactions to secure favourable regulations or market access. Non-state actors, such as international organisations, lobbyists, and influential individuals, broker deals between states and businesses.
An example of transactional diplomacy is the U.S.-China trade deals during the Trump administration, where tariffs and counter-tariffs negotiations exemplified a transactional approach. Another instance is Libya's disarmament in 2003, where Muammar Gaddafi agreed to abandon weapons of mass destruction in exchange for economic reintegration.
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Observation and reporting
The law on diplomatic practice and behaviour remains uncertain and uncodified, and the line between observation and interference is not always clear. Diplomats must navigate this delicate balance, ensuring their actions do not cross the threshold into interference with the internal affairs of the receiving state. This fine line between observation and interference is a key limitation of diplomacy.
The role of diplomats in reporting is crucial, as they are responsible for conveying information back to the sending state. However, deficiencies in language skills and regional knowledge can hinder their effectiveness. For example, a review of Carne Ross's book, "Independent Diplomat: Dispatches from an Unaccountable Elite," details how Ross, a British diplomat in Afghanistan, lacked language skills and regional knowledge, which confined him to the British embassy in Kabul. Despite these limitations, he continued to submit daily reports and "analysis" that supported the official British government's narrative of progress in Afghanistan's transition to democracy.
The issue of language proficiency is not unique to British diplomats, as a GAO report identified dangerous shortfalls in language skills among Foreign Service officers in the United States. In Afghanistan and Iraq, a significant number of officers in language-designated positions did not meet the language proficiency requirements, with even higher percentages lacking sufficient language skills in war zones. These deficiencies can impact the accuracy and effectiveness of reporting, highlighting another limitation of diplomacy that is dependent on accurate information gathering and communication.
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