Eleanor Finch
Research misconduct constitutes a failure to uphold the values of science and can cause damage to individuals, employers, and journals, as well as direct financial, social, and opportunity costs. The most common transgressions include fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism (FFP), which have been the focus of several high-profile cases in recent years. Fabrication involves making up data or results and recording or reporting them, while falsification entails manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or changing/omitting data. Plagiarism, meanwhile, involves appropriating another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without proper credit. Other forms of misconduct include misappropriation of ideas, failure to support validation of research, inappropriate behavior in relation to suspected misconduct, and failure to respond to known cases of unsuccessful validation attempts.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Fabrication | Making up data or results and recording or reporting them |
| Falsification | Manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or changing or omitting data or results |
| Plagiarism | Appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit |
| Misappropriation of Ideas | Taking the intellectual property of others, perhaps as a result of reviewing someone else’s article or manuscript, or grant application and proceeding with the idea as your own |
| Failure to Support Validation of Your Research | Refusing to supply complete datasets or research material needed to facilitate validation of your results through a replication study |
| Failure to Respond to Known Cases of Unsuccessful Validation Attempts | Published research that is found to be flawed should be retracted from the journal that published it |
| Inappropriate Behavior in Relation to Suspected Misconduct | Failure to cooperate with any claims of misconduct made against you, failure to report known or suspected misconduct, destruction of any evidence related to any claim of misconduct, retaliation against any persons involved in a case of misconduct, knowingly making false claims of misconduct |
| Damage to Individuals | |
| Reputational Costs to Employers and Journals | |
| Direct Financial Costs | |
| Broader Social Costs | |
| Opportunity Costs |
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What You'll Learn
Fabrication of data
Fabricating data is a serious form of research misconduct that involves making up data or results and recording or reporting them. It is a significant departure from accepted practices and is typically done with the intent to deceive. Fabrication of data results in an inaccurate scientific record that does not reflect the scientific truth, thereby deceiving stakeholders such as sponsoring institutions, funders, employers, readers, and the general public.
It is essential to distinguish between honest human error and deliberate fabrication. Researchers must ensure that their data and research are beyond suspicion of fraud via fabrication. This includes keeping flawless records of all raw data and accurately expressing methods and processes. While image enhancement is often acceptable, it must accurately represent the underlying data, and significant manipulation must be disclosed.
The consequences of research misconduct, including fabrication, can be severe. Individuals, institutions, and even entire research fields can suffer grievous setbacks. Trust in science relies on the assumption that the content of scientific ideas will be treated with respect, and fabrication violates this trust. Researchers engaging in fabrication put their scientific careers at risk and threaten the overall reputation of science and the welfare of the intended beneficiaries of research.
To prevent accusations of fabrication, researchers must ensure the accuracy of their research and methods. They should also keep comprehensive records of raw data, as journals or investigative bodies may demand to review this information if fabrication is suspected.
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Falsification of data
It is important to distinguish between honest human error and deliberate intent to falsify data. Unintentional errors or negligence can occur and may appear as misconduct, but they lack the crucial element of intent to deceive. To avoid false accusations, researchers must ensure their methods and processes are accurate and keep flawless records of raw data.
Image enhancement is often acceptable if it improves clarity and accurately represents the underlying data. However, significant manipulation must be disclosed in figure captions or the "materials and methods" section of a manuscript. Researchers must be vigilant to ensure their data and research cannot be suspected of fraud through falsification.
The consequences of research misconduct can be severe, including lost time, damaged reputations, and personal betrayal within the scientific community. It can also have broader implications, impacting individuals, institutions, and entire research fields, threatening the overall reputation of science and the welfare of intended beneficiaries.
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Plagiarism
There are several types of plagiarism, including blatant plagiarism, technical plagiarism, patchwork plagiarism, and self-plagiarism. Blatant plagiarism refers to directly copying another person's work without any changes. Technical plagiarism involves minor changes to the original text, such as changing a few words or phrases while keeping the majority of the content intact. Patchwork plagiarism is a form of mosaic plagiarism, where content from multiple sources is stitched together without proper citation. Self-plagiarism occurs when an author uses their own previously published work without proper citation, often to boost their publication count.
Educators, researchers, and publishers are increasingly using plagiarism check software to detect acts of plagiarism and ensure academic integrity. While plagiarism detection tools are helpful, it is also important to address the root causes of plagiarism and promote ethical research practices. This includes educating researchers and students about plagiarism, the value of intellectual integrity, and the consequences of academic misconduct.
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Misappropriation of ideas
Misconduct in research is a serious issue that can have severe penalties, including loss of licensure and imprisonment. Misappropriation of ideas is one of the great transgressions that constitute research misconduct. Misappropriation of ideas refers to taking the intellectual property of others and using it as one's own. This can occur through various means, such as reviewing someone else's article, manuscript, or grant application and then proceeding with the idea without acknowledging the original source. It also includes plagiarism, which is the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit through full citation.
Plagiarism can take many forms, such as using someone else's published work, research processes, or results without proper attribution. It is considered a serious ethical violation and can have significant consequences for those found guilty. Self-plagiarism is also considered misconduct, which involves recycling or reusing one's own work without appropriate disclosure or citation. This can be avoided by using plagiarism checker tools available online.
Another form of misappropriation of ideas is impropriety of authorship, which includes claiming undeserved authorship, excluding material contributors from co-authorship, including non-contributors as authors, or submitting multi-authored publications without the consent of all authors. This type of misconduct undermines the contributions of other researchers and can have negative consequences for their careers.
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Inappropriate behaviour in relation to suspected misconduct
Research misconduct is a broad term that can encompass many different actions and behaviours. Generally, it refers to fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results. The severity of the misconduct is often judged by the damage it causes to the integrity of the research process and the scientific method.
- Failure to cooperate with any claims of misconduct made against oneself or others. This could involve refusing to provide information, evidence, or responses to inquiries.
- Failure to report known or suspected misconduct by others. This includes situations where one may not be directly involved but has knowledge or suspicion of misconduct occurring.
- Destruction or tampering with evidence related to any claim of misconduct. This could involve altering, hiding, or destroying data, documents, or other relevant information.
- Retaliation against any persons involved in a claim of misconduct, including whistleblowers, witnesses, or investigators. This could take many forms, such as professional or personal retribution, harassment, or other adverse consequences.
- Knowingly making false claims of misconduct against others. This involves fabricating or exaggerating allegations without evidence or good faith belief in their truth.
These behaviours can hinder the process of addressing suspected misconduct, protect those responsible, and harm those who raise concerns. Therefore, it is essential to address such behaviours and encourage an environment where misconduct can be reported and addressed without fear of repercussions.
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Frequently asked questions
Research misconduct includes fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results. Fabrication involves making up data or results and recording or reporting them. Falsification refers to manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or changing or omitting data so that the research is not accurately represented in the research record. Plagiarism is the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit.
Examples of research misconduct include:
- Misappropriation of ideas or intellectual property, such as taking ideas from a rival's manuscript or grant application and presenting them as one's own.
- Plagiarism, such as utilizing someone else's words, published work, research processes, or results without giving appropriate credit or citation.
- Falsification of data, such as fabricating data entirely or manipulating experiments to generate preferred results.
- Failure to support the validation of research by refusing to supply complete datasets or research materials needed for replication studies.
- Inappropriate behavior in relation to suspected misconduct, such as failing to cooperate with any claims of misconduct, destroying evidence, or retaliating against individuals who report misconduct.
The consequences of research misconduct can be severe and include lost time, damaged reputations, negative media attention, and loss of funding. In some cases, research misconduct may also result in legal penalties such as loss of licensure or imprisonment.
