Eleanor Finch
Peru's political history has been marked by numerous military coups and constitutional changes. The country gained independence from Spain in 1821, and since then, it has had a variety of governments, including periods of military rule and democratic periods. Today, Peru is a democratic republic with a unicameral Congress, a directly elected president, and a multi-party system. The current constitution, in force since 1993, establishes a presidential system with a separation of powers between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Given this context, is Peru a constitutional monarchy?
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Type of Government | Democratic Republic |
| Constitution | Yes |
| Independence | Yes, since 28 July 1821 |
| Branches of Government | 3: Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary |
| Head of State | President |
| Election of Head of State | Elected by citizens to a five-year term without immediate reelection |
| Election of Legislature | Elected by citizens to five-year terms |
| Voting Requirements | Compulsory for citizens aged 18-70 |
| Political Parties | Right-wing, Left-wing, and Centre |
| Military | Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine contingents |
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What You'll Learn
Peru's history of military coups and constitutional changes
Peru's political history has been marked by numerous military coups and constitutional changes. The country's current constitution, enacted on 31 December 1993, is the fifth constitution of the 20th century and replaced the 1979 Constitution. The 1993 Constitution was drafted by the Democratic Constituent Congress during the Peruvian Constitutional Crisis of 1992, which followed President Alberto Fujimori's self-coup and dissolution of Congress. This constitution has been amended several times, with 30 amendments made as of December 2024, most of which were approved by Congress supermajority votes.
Peru's history of military coups is extensive, with notable coups d'état occurring in 1914, 1919, 1930, 1948, 1962, 1968, and 1992. The 1968 coup, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, resulted in the arrest and exile of then-President Fernando Belaúnde. The coup was sparked by political disputes between President Belaúnde and Congress, dominated by the APRA-UNO coalition, and a national scandal involving a dispute with the International Petroleum Company over oil field licenses.
The 1992 self-coup by President Fujimori, mentioned earlier, also led to the dissolution of Congress and the drafting of the 1993 Constitution. This constitution gave greater power to the president, and subsequent amendments have further altered the rules of interaction among branches of government.
The country's first constitution, the Political Constitution of the Peruvian Republic, was promulgated on November 12, 1823, by President José Bernardo de Tagle. However, it was almost entirely suspended to allow for the planning of Simón Bolívar's campaign. The 1823 constitution was re-established in 1827 but abolished the following year.
Another significant period of political instability occurred in 1835, when a coup d'état led to a civil war between self-declared president Felipe Santiago Salaverry and constitutional president Luis José de Orbegoso. De Orbegoso allowed Bolivian President Andrés de Santa Cruz to send troops into Peru, and the subsequent triumph of this alliance led to the creation of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation.
More recently, in 2022–2023, Peru experienced a period of political protests that sought the removal of President Boluarte, the writing of a new constitution, and immediate general elections. The strong response by the political elite in Lima raised concerns about the potential establishment of an authoritarian or civilian-military government.
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The Peruvian government's three branches
Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. It is not a constitutional monarchy. The country's government is separated into three branches: the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary.
Legislature
The unicameral Congress of Peru is made up of 130 members, from 25 administrative divisions, determined by respective population. Congress members are popularly elected to five-year terms. The Congress works through Departmental Committees that are tasked with monitoring essential government functions. Some of these departments include Foreign Commerce and Tourism, Agrarian, Science, Innovation and Technology, and National Defense, among others. The leadership of the Congress is under its President, who is assisted by three deputies. Congress interprets and applies the laws of the country and can pass a motion of no confidence, censure ministers, as well as initiate impeachments and convict executives.
Executive
The executive branch is made up of the President, the Council of Ministers (or Cabinet), which in practice controls domestic legislation, the prime minister, and 18 ministers of the state. The President is both the head of state and the head of government and is elected to a five-year term without immediate reelection. The President can be reelected but is prohibited from serving consecutive terms. The President appoints ministers who oversee the 18 ministries of the state, including the prime minister, into the Cabinet. The prime minister, who is designated minimal authority by the constitution, presides over cabinet meetings in which ministers advise the President and acts as a spokesperson on behalf of the executive branch. The President can also pose questions of confidence to the Congress of Peru and consequently order the dissolution of Congress.
Judiciary
The judiciary comprises the Supreme Court of Justice (or Royal Audencia of Lima) and lower courts and tribunals. The Supreme Court has nationwide jurisdiction and hears appeals from lower-court decisions; it also investigates the conduct of lower-court judges. The Supreme Court has 16 judges each charged with three specific divisions: criminal, civil, and constitutional and the social sector. Next to the Supreme Court are 28 superior courts, 195 trial courts, and 1,838 district courts. The judiciary is nominally independent, though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history.
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The Peruvian president's role and powers
Peru is not a constitutional monarchy. The country has a long history of military coups and constitutional changes. The current constitution of Peru, established in 1993, outlines a government headed by a president who is popularly elected to a five-year term and serves as both the head of state and the head of government.
The president of Peru is the head of state and the head of government, and they are elected to a five-year term without the possibility of immediate reelection. However, they can be reelected for non-consecutive terms. The president is responsible for appointing and presiding over the Council of Ministers (also known as the Cabinet), which includes the prime minister and 18 ministers of state. The prime minister's role is largely ceremonial, as the constitution designates minimal authority to this position. The president also appoints two vice presidents who are popularly elected.
The president plays a crucial role in the legislative process, as they can propose bills to Congress and pose questions of confidence to the Congress of Peru. If Congress fails to maintain the confidence of the president, the president has the power to order the dissolution of Congress, as was done in 1992 and 2019. However, it is important to note that Congress also has significant powers in relation to the presidency, including the ability to pass a motion of no confidence, censure ministers, initiate impeachments, and convict executives.
The president's role also extends to the judiciary, as they are responsible for appointing the Supreme Court judges and some lower court judges through the National Council of the Magistracy. The Supreme Court has nationwide jurisdiction and hears appeals from lower-court decisions. Additionally, the president's role encompasses domestic and foreign policy matters, and they are supported by the Council of Ministers in these areas.
Peru's political history has been marked by periods of stability and turmoil, with the country experiencing several presidential scandals and allegations of corruption and human rights abuses. The role of the president is further complicated by the presence of powerful political parties and coalitions, as well as the influence of the military and right-wing Congress.
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The Congress of Peru and its members
Peru is not a constitutional monarchy. In the early 19th century, while most South American nations were swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. Independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar. In 1810, the Buenos Aires junta, in conflict with the government of Cádiz, proposed Carlota as a constitutional queen of the United Provinces (nowadays Argentina). She wanted to rule as an absolutist monarch, which led to Buenos Aires withdrawing its proposal.
The Congress of the Republic of Peru is the unicameral body that assumes legislative power in Peru. The Congress of Peru has 130 members, from 25 administrative divisions, determined by respective population and elected to five-year terms. The Congress meets at the Legislative Palace in Lima. The presiding officer is the President of Congress, who is elected by the members thereof (and is therefore traditionally the leader of the controlling party). The President and three vice-presidents are chosen by the controlling governing coalition. The Members of the Congress are elected to serve the nation, legislate, control and represent the interests and aspirations of the people. The Congress represents the plural opinion of the nation. Representatives of all races, creeds, ideologies, professions, and crafts are elected by democratic votes, on the basis of the people’s decision.
The Congress of Peru can also pass a motion of no confidence, censure ministers, as well as initiate impeachments and convict executives. Bills are proposed by the executive and legislative powers and become law through a plurality vote in Congress. Congress is charged with the responsibility to pass laws and legislative resolutions, as well as to interpret, amend, or repeal existing laws. Congress also ratifies international treaties, approves the national budget, and authorizes loans on behalf of the country. It may also override presidential objections to bills by a vote of more than half the legal number of congressmen. Due to broadly interpreted impeachment wording in the Constitution of Peru, the President of Peru can be removed by Congress without cause, effectively making the legislature more powerful than the executive branch.
In 2022, the Congress of Peru was protested against, with the protestors seeking the removal of Congress and the writing of a new constitution. In March 2024, the Congress of Peru was transformed into a bicameral legislature composed of a Chamber of Deputies (with at least 130 members) and a Senate (with at least 60 members). The first elections to the bicameral Congress are due to be held in April 2026.
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Peru's political parties and coalitions
Peru is not a constitutional monarchy. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, aristocrats and wealthy merchants cooperated to fight the Spanish Empire. However, the aristocrats later obtained greater power, leading to an oligarchy. This oligarchy was supported by the Catholic Church, which ignored inequalities and helped governments maintain control over the impoverished majority. This has resulted in a history of military coups and changing constitutions. The current 1993 constitution, which has been amended several times, establishes a government headed by a president who is elected for a single five-year term and cannot serve consecutive terms.
Peru's political landscape includes a wide spectrum of political parties, ranging from right-wing conservative to left-wing socialist and communist. Traditional parties have often been replaced by hastily formed coalitions, and the country's first elected left-wing government in contemporary history was that of Pedro Castillo in 2021. Peru's political parties include the Nationalist Party United Peru (left-wing), the Peruvian Aprista Party (moderate centre), and National Unity (right-wing).
The country's political history has been marked by the involvement of the military, which has often overthrown elected leaders and adopted their proposals. This pattern has resulted in a cycle of elected leaders proposing policies, only to be overthrown by the military, which then implements those policies. The most recent example of this cycle occurred during the 2022-2023 Peruvian political protests, where the government responded violently to protests seeking the removal of President Boluarte and Congress.
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Frequently asked questions
No, Peru is not a constitutional monarchy. It is a democratic republic with a president who is both the head of state and the head of government. The president is elected for a five-year term and cannot be re-elected for consecutive terms.
A constitutional monarchy is a system of government in which a monarch is guided by a constitution that outlines their rights, duties, and responsibilities.
No, Peru has never been a constitutional monarchy. However, during the Peruvian struggle for independence from Spain, there were proposals for a constitutional monarchy with an Inca ruler. These proposals were rejected, and Peru became a republic.
Peru has a history of political instability, with frequent changes in government and constitutions. The current government is facing protests due to its unpopularity, with calls for the removal of the president and Congress, as well as a new constitution.
The Peruvian government is divided into three branches: the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary. The legislature is a unicameral Congress, the executive is the president and their Council of Ministers, and the judiciary is the Supreme Court and lower courts.
