Omar Bennett
World War II had a profound impact on the political and social landscape of Germany and Italy, leading to significant changes in their constitutions. In Italy, the war's aftermath saw the fall of Benito Mussolini's fascist regime and the country's transition from a monarchy to a republic. Italy's military disasters during the war, coupled with economic woes, contributed to the rise of anti-monarchist sentiments. The Italian referendum of 1946 resulted in the abolition of the monarchy, with Italy officially becoming a republic. Germany, on the other hand, had already undergone constitutional reforms after World War I, establishing the Weimar Republic with its progressive constitution. However, the post-World War II era witnessed the emergence of West Germany and East Germany, each with its own unique constitutional developments influenced by their respective occupying powers.
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What You'll Learn
War reparations
Germany
After World War I, Germany was to pay the Allies reparations of 132 billion gold marks, as outlined in the Treaty of Versailles. However, Germany defaulted on these payments, and the occupation of the Ruhr in 1923 by French and Belgian troops followed in an attempt to collect reparations by force.
Following World War II, Germany once again had to pay war reparations to the Allies, as agreed upon during the Potsdam Conference. The Federal Republic and Democratic Republic of Germany were to pay $23 billion, primarily in machinery and manufacturing plants. German POWs and civilians were also used as forced labor in Europe, Canada, and the United States. Additionally, the Western Allies seized foreign stocks, ships, industrial products like steel and coal, and other assets.
Italy
Italy was compelled to pay war reparations after World War II, as outlined in the 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy. Italy agreed to pay approximately $360 million (in 1938 prices) to several countries:
- $125 million to Yugoslavia
- $105 million to Greece
- $100 million to the Soviet Union
- $25 million to Ethiopia
- $5 million to Albania
Italy also agreed to pay £1,765,000 to Greek nationals who had their property in Italian territory destroyed or seized during the war.
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Loss of Italian colonial empire
Italy's colonial ambitions were driven by a desire to emulate the other European powers and to seek revenge for past defeats. The unification of Italy in 1861 and the belief that it was the heir to the Roman Empire fueled these aspirations. By the start of World War I, Italy had acquired colonies in Eritrea, Somalia, and Libya, but its attempts to conquer Ethiopia were thwarted twice, in 1887 and 1895-96, leading to a wave of nationalism and the founding of the Italian Nationalist Association.
During the Fascist rule of Benito Mussolini, Italy invaded and annexed Ethiopia, expanded its European borders, and further consolidated its empire in Africa. However, Italy's colonial empire began to unravel during World War II. The Italian position in North Africa was destroyed in the Second Battle of El-Alamein in October 1942, leading to the surrender of its North African forces in May 1943. Italy also lost its extensive empire in East Africa, including Ethiopia, early in 1941.
The Italian campaign during World War II saw heavy fighting between Allied and Axis powers. The Allies, including American and British forces, made several strategic landings and advances, capturing important territories such as the port of Bari and airfields around Foggia. Meanwhile, German forces prepared to defend without Italian assistance, disarming the Royal Italian Army. The Italian government agreed to an armistice with the Allies, which was publicly announced on September 8, 1943.
The aftermath of World War II brought significant changes to Italy's colonial possessions. The 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy marked the end of the Italian colonial empire, along with border revisions. Italy was compelled to pay substantial war reparations to several countries, including Ethiopia, and agreed to compensate Greek nationals for property losses during the war. The Italian monarchy, associated with the deprivations of war, was abolished in the 1946 constitutional referendum.
The loss of Italy's colonial empire had a profound impact on the country's constitution and international standing. Italy's late entry into the colonial race and its dependence on other European powers had already limited its empire primarily to Africa. The military disasters and surrenders during World War II further eroded Italy's colonial holdings, leaving a legacy of defeat and occupation. The post-war treaties and reparations further diminished Italy's global influence, reshaping its place in the world.
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Internment of Italian emigrants
The internment of Italian emigrants during World War II refers primarily to the US government's internment of Italian nationals. As was customary after Italy and the US entered into a state of war, Italian nationals were classified as "enemy aliens". This classification applied to all persons born in Italy living in the United States, regardless of citizenship status. However, the term was most often applied to Italian diplomats, businessmen, and international students studying in the US.
By 1940, there were millions of native-born Italians who had become American citizens, and more than 600,000 Italian "enemy aliens" who had immigrated during the previous decades and had not become naturalized citizens. Of these, 418 Italian immigrants were held in internment centres, while the rest were subject to restrictions such as curfews and searches and seizures by the FBI. The wartime story of removal and detainment tends to focus on Japanese Americans, but Italian Americans also faced significant restrictions and hardships during World War II.
In addition to the United States, Italian emigrants were also interned in Britain, and Italian prisoners of war were held in concentration and labour camps. After the armistice with the Allies, some 650,000 members of the Italian armed forces who refused to side with the occupying Germans were interned, with around 50,000 dying in captivity or in transit. A further 29,000 died in armed struggles against the Germans while resisting capture.
The internment of Italian emigrants had a significant impact on the Italian-American community, with many families experiencing fear, suspicion, and hardship during World War II. The US government's actions were driven by wartime fear and suspicion, and the surveillance powers of the federal government were greatly increased. In 2010, the California Legislature passed a resolution apologizing for the US mistreatment of Italian residents during the war.
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The rise of authoritarian leadership
Germany
In the aftermath of World War I, Germany faced significant economic challenges, including high war reparations imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. The government's attempts to manage the debt crisis, such as printing large amounts of money, led to hyperinflation, further exacerbating the economic woes of the German people. These economic hardships fostered widespread discontent with the government and created a vacuum for new leadership.
Amid this turmoil, Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party, commonly known as the Nazis, rose to prominence. Hitler, an Austrian-born ardent nationalist with strong anti-Semitic beliefs, tapped into the German populace's frustration. He advocated for strong authoritarian leadership and blamed Germany's defeat in World War I on weak leadership, Jewish influence in the government, and an international conspiracy.
Hitler was elected chair of the Nazi Party in 1921 and attempted a putsch against the government in 1923, resulting in his imprisonment. During his incarceration, he penned "Mein Kampf," outlining his ideological beliefs. The Nazis capitalized on Germany's economic woes and promoted a nationalist and anti-Semitic agenda that ultimately contributed to the outbreak of World War II and the Holocaust.
Italy
Italy, under the leadership of Benito Mussolini, also experienced a shift towards authoritarian rule. Mussolini engaged Italy in foreign conflicts, such as the Spanish Civil War, and pursued an expansionist agenda, including the invasion of Ethiopia. These military endeavours strained Italy's resources and contributed to a significant increase in government debt.
Mussolini's decision to side with Germany during World War II further exacerbated Italy's problems. The country suffered numerous military disasters, with poorly led and demoralized troops fighting far from home. Italy's participation in the war resulted in the loss of its colonial empire, massive war reparations, and the internment of Italian emigrants and soldiers in concentration and labour camps.
The aftermath of World War II witnessed a shift away from nationalism in Europe due to its association with Fascism. The left gained credibility, especially in Western European countries, as communists played a significant role in resisting Nazi forces. The legacy of anti-Semitism persisted, and dictatorships survived in some countries, such as Spain and Portugal.
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The end of the Italian monarchy
The Italian monarchy, which lasted from 1861 to 1946, was formally abolished in June 1946 after a national referendum. The monarchy was led by King Victor Emmanuel III, who supported the fascist government during World War II. This eventually led to the monarchy's downfall, as the Italian people had endured tremendous suffering and desired a fresh start. Italy was invaded by American and British troops during the war and was subsequently liberated from fascist dictatorship. The liberation was widely celebrated, and Mussolini was executed by the Italian people.
The Italian monarchy, also known as the Kingdom of Italy, was a system of government in which a hereditary constitutional monarch was the sovereign. The modern Kingdom of Italy was formed through the unification of the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Italy had no monarch as its head of state after World War II, and the country became a democratic republic. The Italian royal family still exists but is not recognised by the Italian government, which does not acknowledge any form of hereditary nobility.
The end of the monarchy in Italy was marked by a national referendum in which the Italian people voted to become a republic. This referendum was held in the summer of 1946, and the results were announced on June 12, 1946, when Umberto II, the son of Victor Emmanuel III, left the country after ruling for just one month. The public referendum offered a choice between maintaining the monarchy or transitioning to a republic. Victor Emmanuel III had hoped that appointing Umberto II as the new king would persuade the people to preserve the monarchy.
The Italian monarchy's involvement in World War II significantly contributed to its demise. Victor Emmanuel III's support for the fascist government and Italy's alliance with Germany led to widespread suffering and devastation. Italy suffered numerous military defeats, including the loss of its colonial empire and the surrender of its North African forces. Additionally, hundreds of thousands of Italian emigrants were interned worldwide, and Italian troops faced hardships and high casualties in Russia. The Italian people sought a new beginning, and the monarchy was associated with the deprivations of the war.
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