Eleanor Finch
Majoritarianism is a political philosophy or ideology that asserts that a majority, whether based on religion, language, social class, or another category of the population, is entitled to primacy in society and has the right to make decisions that affect society. It is based on the principle of majority rule, which can be traced back to ancient Athens and other Greek city-states. The United Kingdom is a classical example of a majoritarian system, with its Westminster system serving as a model for many other democracies. While majoritarianism has gained a positive connotation over time, it is not without its critics. Some argue that it can lead to the tyranny of the majority, where minority groups are oppressed or excluded, and that it contradicts the fundamental rights and liberties that are essential to democracy. The U.S. Constitution, for example, includes provisions to protect minority rights and prevent the exclusion of minority groups from the democratic process.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Concentration of executive power | The Cabinet or executive is composed entirely of members from a single party who hold the majority of seats in the legislature |
| Asymmetric bicameralism | Two houses of parliament, with one having significantly more power than the other |
| One-dimensional party system | Two dominant parties largely fall on a spectrum along a single dimension |
| Representative (not direct) democracy | Voters mandate elected politicians to enact the policies they proposed during their electoral campaign |
| First-past-the-post electoral system | Seen in the UK, where a single party typically forms a majority in Parliament |
| Modified majoritarianism | Seen in Australia, where the lower house is elected via preferential voting and the upper house via proportional representation |
| Tyranny of the majority | The danger of the majority in society oppressing or excluding minority groups |
| Constraints on parliamentary majority | Liberal democracies include constraints on what the parliamentary majority can do to protect citizens' fundamental rights |
| Qualified majoritarianism | A more inclusionary form, with degrees of decentralization and federalism |
| Integrative majoritarianism | Incorporates institutions to preserve minority groups and foster moderate political parties |
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What You'll Learn
The dangers of unchecked majoritarianism
In a pure and unchecked democracy, it is difficult to find consensus on a great number of issues because it requires the agreement of a varied set of individuals. This can result in the oppression of minorities, which is facilitated by the majority's ability to impose their will. For example, in the context of gay marriage, the majority opinion may be that it should be prohibited. However, the Fourteenth Amendment demands that state laws must apply equally to all citizens and must not be motivated by hate or animus.
Another example is the case of nationalism, which can be considered an abuse of the principle of majoritarian democracy. Nationalists claim to be democratic and to represent the will of the people, but nationalism is not freedom-loving by nature. It can lead to the exclusion and oppression of minority groups, such as those from different regions or with different political beliefs.
Furthermore, majoritarian systems can magnify the results of the largest minority, leading to a "winner takes all" scenario. This can result in a person or party being chosen with a minority of the votes, as the strategic alliance of smaller groups may win over the plurality. This can be seen in the French Presidential election system, where successive ballots reduce the choice to the top two candidates.
To prevent the dangers of unchecked majoritarianism, it is important to have checks and balances in place to divide power. This could include mechanisms to represent minorities, such as proportional representation or devolved parliaments, as well as judicial review and constitutional barriers to majoritarian votes.
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Constraints on parliamentary majority
The concept of 'majority' is fundamental to parliamentary procedure, ensuring that decisions are made with the support of a plurality of members, thus upholding the principles of democracy. In a parliamentary democracy, all major decisions are made by the Parliament, and a majority vote is needed to pass a bill and make laws.
However, the power of a parliamentary majority is subject to constraints. For instance, laws have their limits and cannot provide for every eventuality. While a parliament may, in theory, have the right to introduce unpopular measures, these would still require a majority vote. The use of referendums has been argued to undermine the concept of parliamentary sovereignty, as seen in the case of the Labour government in 1997, which held four referendums in 13 months.
International agreements and memberships can also place constraints on parliamentary sovereignty. For example, the Labour government in 1976 had to negotiate a loan from the IMF, which came with the condition of introducing monetarist policies and cuts in public spending. Similarly, the Single European Act of 1986 and the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 widened the scope of EU legislation, impacting Britain's parliamentary sovereignty.
In the context of the Indian Parliament, there are four types of majorities: simple, absolute, effective, and special. Each type has specific criteria and applies to different decision-making processes. For instance, a simple majority is required for passing ordinary bills, money bills, and financial bills, while an absolute majority refers to more than 50% of the total membership of the house. A special majority, on the other hand, includes stricter criteria, such as a two-thirds majority of members present and voting, and it is essential for constitutional amendments.
In Canada, the government must maintain the support of a majority of members of Parliament (MPs) to stay in power, known as a majority government. Conversely, a minority government requires support from opposition MPs and tends to have increased influence from opposition parties.
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The 'tyranny of the majority'
The phrase "tyranny of the majority" is often attributed to several Founding Fathers of the United States, but only John Adams is known to have used it in his work, "A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America". In his writing, Adams argued against a government ruled by a unicameral elected body, warning of the dangers of a "tyranny of the majority". He advocated for a mixed government with three separate branches to prevent this potential tyranny.
The concept of "tyranny of the majority" refers to a situation in a system of majority rule, where the interests and preferences of the majority dominate, potentially sidelining or repressing minority groups. This form of oppression could involve the majority using the democratic process to shape public policy solely in their favour, excluding the minority group from the distribution of benefits. The ancient Greeks called this type of government "ochlocracy", or "mob rule", and considered it unsuitable, along with oligarchy and tyranny.
The idea of the "tyranny of the majority" has been discussed by several influential thinkers, including John Stuart Mill in "On Liberty", where he was influenced by Tocqueville. In "On Liberty", Mill, influenced by Tocqueville, warned of the potential for tyranny in a direct democracy, where voters mandate elected politicians to enact their proposed policies. Other notable figures who have discussed the concept include Friedrich Nietzsche, Ayn Rand, and Herbert Marcuse.
To prevent the "tyranny of the majority", modern democracies often implement countermajoritarian institutions that restrict the ability of majorities to repress minorities. For example, the framers of the US Constitution established a government with checks and balances to prevent any one part of the government from becoming too powerful. Other mechanisms to prevent the "tyranny of the majority" include constitutional limits on legislative powers, such as a bill of rights or supermajority clause, and the separation of powers or judicial independence.
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The concentration of executive power
The United States Constitution is a foundational document that establishes the country's governing principles and structures. While it incorporates various democratic principles, it also reflects a concern for limiting the concentration of power in any single branch of government. The Constitution's system of checks and balances is designed to distribute power and hold against majoritarianism.
The executive branch, headed by the President, is granted significant powers, but these powers are balanced by the legislative and judicial branches. The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, can make diplomatic appointments and nominations, and has the power to veto legislation passed by Congress. However, the President's powers are not unlimited and are subject to oversight and approval by the legislative branch.
The legislative branch, represented by Congress, plays a crucial role in limiting the concentration of executive power. Congress has the authority to pass laws, confirm presidential appointments, and provide a check on executive power through oversight and investigative committees. As the branch most directly representative of the people, with members elected by the voters, it serves as a crucial link between the government and the citizens. The legislative process is deliberately designed to require collaboration and compromise between the two chambers of Congress: the Senate and the House of Representatives, each with distinct roles and powers.
The judicial branch, comprised of the federal court system with the Supreme Court at its head, has the mandate to interpret laws and determine their constitutionality. The judiciary safeguards individual rights and ensures that the actions of the executive and legislative branches do not exceed the boundaries set by the Constitution. Through the process of judicial review, the courts can strike down laws or executive actions deemed to be unconstitutional, thereby providing an additional check on the concentration of power.
While the Constitution establishes a framework for governance, it is important to recognize its adaptability and evolution over time. The document has been interpreted and applied through legal precedents, amended to reflect changing societal needs, and shaped by political practices. The balance between majority rule and minority rights has been a subject of ongoing debate, demonstrating the dynamic nature of constitutional interpretation and governance.
In conclusion, while the Constitution incorporates democratic principles and provides for majority rule, it also includes mechanisms to prevent the concentration of power in any single branch of government. The system of checks and balances, coupled with the separation of powers, ensures that the executive, legislative, and judicial branches have distinct and overlapping roles, each serving as a counterbalance to the others. This design reflects the framers' cautious approach to governance and their intention to protect against the potential excesses of majoritarian rule.
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The role of constitutions in limiting majoritarian votes
Majoritarianism is the idea that the numerical majority of a population should determine the outcome of a decision. It is based on the Westminster model and majority rule, with key features including the concentration of executive power, asymmetric bicameralism, and a one-dimensional party system. While it is common, it is not universally accepted due to the risk of "tyranny of the majority", where the majority may oppress minority groups. To mitigate this, some democracies modify or limit majoritarianism through mechanisms that aim to represent minorities.
Constitutions play a crucial role in limiting majoritarian votes and preventing "tyranny of the majority". They serve as a check on the power of the majority, protecting the rights of minorities and ensuring that the government acts within established boundaries. One way constitutions achieve this is by establishing independent judiciaries, such as the Supreme Court, which can interpret and apply the constitution, strike down laws, and protect the rights of individuals and minority groups. For example, in the United States, Article III of the Constitution vests judicial power in unelected, life-appointed judges, giving them the authority to overturn laws passed by the majority.
Additionally, constitutions may include provisions for a system of checks and balances, where different branches of government have the power to limit or balance the power of the majority. For instance, in the US, the Electoral College and the Senate act as checks on the popular will reflected in the directly-elected House, preventing the majority from dominating all branches of government.
Constitutions can also outline specific protections for minority groups, ensuring that their rights are respected and upheld even in the face of majority opposition. These protections may include guarantees of equal protection under the law, freedom of speech and religion, and the right to due process, among others.
Furthermore, some constitutions may incorporate mechanisms for proportional representation, ensuring that minority views are represented in the government. This can be achieved through various electoral systems, such as mixed-member proportional representation or additional-member systems, where representatives are elected by proportional representation alongside a non-proportional formula.
In summary, constitutions play a vital role in limiting majoritarian votes by establishing independent judiciaries, providing checks and balances, protecting minority rights, and facilitating proportional representation. These measures help prevent "tyranny of the majority" and ensure that the government remains accountable to all citizens, not just the majority.
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Frequently asked questions
Majoritarianism is a political philosophy or ideology that asserts that a majority, whether based on religion, language, social class, or another category of the population, is entitled to a certain degree of primacy in society and has the right to make decisions that affect society.
Arend Lijphart identifies the following key features of a majoritarian democracy:
- Concentration of executive power: The Cabinet or executive is composed entirely of members from a single party, which holds the majority of seats in the legislature.
- Asymmetric bicameralism: There are two houses of parliament, but one house has significantly more power than the other.
- One-dimensional party system: The two dominant parties largely fall on a spectrum along a single dimension, e.g. representing the left and right from a socio-economic perspective.
Unchecked majoritarianism can threaten the rights of minority groups. Critics argue that majoritarian democracy has the inherent danger of becoming a "'tyranny of the majority,'" where the majority in society could oppress or exclude minority groups, leading to violence and civil war.
The United Kingdom is the classical example of a majoritarian system, with its Westminster system that has been adapted in many other democracies. Australia is also considered a generally majoritarian democracy, although some argue that it represents a form of "modified majoritarianism."
The U.S. Constitution incorporates a majoritarian model of democracy through its emphasis on democratic accountability to elected officials, such as the President or Congress. The Constitution also includes provisions related to the “general welfare,” the right to petition and assemble, and the specification of jury trials, which indicate a broader notion of democracy beyond majoritarian elections.
