Eleanor Finch
China's approach to global governance is shaped by its historical view of itself as the Middle Kingdom or the cultural, political, and economic centre of the world. This has influenced its modern-day foreign policy, which has become increasingly assertive as China has re-emerged as a major power. China's foreign policy is also informed by traditional Chinese values, such as the concept of “he”, which justifies the defensive use of force, and fenfayouwei, or striving for achievement. Under President Xi Jinping, China has adopted a more active approach to diplomacy, with a focus on Chinese characteristics, and the country has sought to exert its influence through soft power, including cultural channels such as film, music, and sports. China's response to the COVID-19 pandemic, including its mask and vaccine diplomacy, has also played a role in shaping its diplomatic style and increasing its standing on the world stage.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| China's power and diplomacy style is informed by its conception of itself as the "Middle Kingdom", the cultural, political, and economic centre of the world. | China's diplomacy style is evolving under President Xi Jinping, with a transition to a more active approach. |
| China's diplomacy is informed by its traditional cultural values, rather than adopting Western models and principles. | China's foreign policy is driven by the concept of "he", meaning peace and a harmonious balance with nature. |
| China's foreign policy is also driven by another concept of "he", or the desire for positive outcomes. | China has positive relationships with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. |
| China's diplomacy is driven by a sense of duty to play a leadership role in global economic development. | China has diplomatic relations with 53 of the 54 countries that are generally recognised in Africa. |
| China's diplomacy is informed by the concept of "face", a significant aspect of Chinese political and sociological thinking. | China has cultivated multifaceted commercial ties with regional players and local partners, with Europe being a high priority. |
| China's diplomacy is informed by the idea of "wolf warrior diplomacy", demonstrating China's projected strength and nationalistic solidarity. | China's "mask diplomacy" during the COVID-19 pandemic involved sending medical equipment and doctors to suffering countries. |
| China's diplomacy is influenced by the idea of "striving for achievement", a continuation of the idea of "hiding strength and biding time". | China's "vaccine diplomacy" during the COVID-19 pandemic involved sending vaccines to other countries. |
| China's diplomacy is influenced by the concept of "zhongguo", implying that China is the centre of the world. | China's "dollar diplomacy" in the Caribbean region involves switching recognition from Taiwan to the "One China" policy in exchange for investment. |
| China's diplomacy is shaped by the idea of "great power diplomacy with Chinese characteristics", a theoretical crystallisation that combines Marxism with the practice of great power diplomacy. | China's diplomacy is influenced by the concept of "socialism with Chinese characteristics", indicating a transition to a more active approach. |
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What You'll Learn
- China's foreign policy is influenced by the concept of zhongguo, or the Middle Kingdom, reflecting its Sino-centrist worldview
- China's mask and vaccine diplomacy during the COVID-19 pandemic
- China's soft power and its influence through societal and cultural channels
- China's role in Africa and its relations with Zimbabwe and Robert Mugabe's regime
- China's approach to global governance and its relationship with international institutions
China's foreign policy is influenced by the concept of zhongguo, or the Middle Kingdom, reflecting its Sino-centrist worldview
China's foreign policy is heavily influenced by the concept of Zhongguo, or the Middle Kingdom, reflecting its Sino-centrist worldview. This concept holds that China is not only a geographic entity but also the cultural, political, and economic centre of the world. While the idea of Zhongguo has evolved over time, it has shaped China's approach to global governance and its efforts to regain its perceived centrality in international institutions.
Historically, China was a dominant force in the world, and its rulers saw their country as one of the leading actors on the global stage. The term "Zhongguo" translates to "Middle Kingdom" or "Central State," implying that China occupies a central and pivotal position. This concept is deeply rooted in Chinese classical philosophy and has been a part of the country's political and cultural traditions for millennia.
The decline and collapse of imperial China in the 1800s and early 1900s diminished its global influence. However, in recent decades, China has reemerged as a major power, boasting the world's second-largest economy and a formidable military. As China's power has grown, it has become more assertive in international affairs, seeking to shape global governance institutions to align with its interests and values.
China's concept of the Middle Kingdom influences its foreign policy in several ways. Firstly, it shapes China's approach to international institutions and agreements. China supports and engages with institutions that align with its goals, such as the World Bank and the Paris Agreement on climate change. However, on issues where it diverges from existing norms, such as human rights, China seeks to create alternative institutions and models that reflect its own values and those of other authoritarian powers.
Additionally, the Middle Kingdom concept influences China's economic diplomacy. With its growing economic success, China feels a sense of duty to spread its success abroad and play a leadership role in global economic development. This is reflected in initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative, through which China invests in infrastructure projects worldwide, strengthening its economic ties and influence.
In conclusion, China's foreign policy is influenced by its perception of itself as the Middle Kingdom, reflecting a Sino-centrist worldview. This concept has shaped China's approach to global governance, international relations, and its efforts to regain its central position in the international system. As China continues to rise in power and influence, its interpretation of the Middle Kingdom will likely continue to guide its diplomatic and strategic decisions.
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China's mask and vaccine diplomacy during the COVID-19 pandemic
During the COVID-19 pandemic, China played a significant role in providing medical assistance to countries worldwide. This aid, referred to as "mask diplomacy," included exporting critical medical goods such as face masks, disinfectants, and other personal protective equipment. China's role as the main exporter of these supplies was particularly notable given that it had initially faced a shortage of medical equipment itself during the early stages of the pandemic. By March 2020, Chinese exports of masks and disinfectants had increased by more than 1000% compared to the previous year, helping to alleviate shortages in other countries.
China's mask diplomacy was not limited to commercial exports but also involved donations to various countries. These donations were often highly publicized and symbolically significant, such as the exchange of donations between Japan and the Jack Ma Foundation, featuring quotes from ancient Chinese poems. China's government, private companies, and individuals all played a role in sending medical supplies overseas.
In addition to mask diplomacy, China also engaged in "vaccine diplomacy" during the pandemic. President Xi Jinping pledged to make China's COVID-19 vaccine development and deployment a global public good, with a focus on ensuring accessibility and affordability in developing countries. China donated millions of vaccines to African and Asian countries, which helped improve its international image, especially in regions where positive perceptions of China were lacking.
While some analysts view China's medical aid as a strategic tool to strengthen its influence and soft power, others argue that it was more reactionary and fragmented, with policymakers unprepared to use it strategically. China's efforts to provide medical assistance during the pandemic may also have been motivated by a desire to enhance its global image, which had been damaged by the outbreak, and to reframe the narrative surrounding the virus, which originated in Wuhan.
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China's soft power and its influence through societal and cultural channels
China's soft power is derived primarily from its traditional culture, which has been a source of attraction for many. The country has created hundreds of Confucius Institutes worldwide to teach its language and culture, with foreign student enrollment in China increasing significantly over the years. Chinese soft power is exerted through various societal and cultural channels, including literature, art, film, music, education, journalism, sports, and popular culture.
China's gaming companies, such as Tencent, have also become instruments for exerting soft power, with Chinese cultural elements embedded in games to promote their influence globally. Additionally, China has been developing an international media network and establishing cultural study centers to boost its appeal abroad.
In Latin America, China grants diplomatic audiences to even smaller countries and uses "dollar diplomacy" to encourage nations to adopt the "One China" policy in exchange for investment. China's role in Africa has sparked criticism, with accusations of neocolonialism and racial discrimination. However, China issued the "Nine Principles to Encourage and Standardize Enterprises' Overseas Investment" to guide Chinese companies operating abroad.
China's early success in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic, coupled with its ownership of the global medical supply chain, enabled it to engage in "mask diplomacy" and provide medical equipment and vaccines to other countries. This enhanced its reputation as a responsible global actor.
China's foreign policy is influenced by traditional cultural values and the concept of "zhongguo" or the Middle Kingdom, reflecting its belief in being the cultural, political, and economic center of the world. President Xi Jinping's concept of "New Era" indicates a more active approach to diplomacy, emphasizing "Chinese characteristics" in conducting international affairs. China's core values, such as "peaceful rise" and "harmonious society," aim to counter the narrative that its emergence threatens the existing international order.
Overall, China's soft power and influence through societal and cultural channels play a significant role in its diplomacy and global standing.
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China's role in Africa and its relations with Zimbabwe and Robert Mugabe's regime
China's foreign relations are informed by its historical view of itself as the "Middle Kingdom", or the cultural, political, and economic centre of the world. This worldview has shaped its outlook on global governance and its increasing assertiveness in seeking to regain its centrality in the international system. China has diplomatic relations with 53 of the 54 countries generally recognised in Africa, and its relations with African nations have deepened in a variety of areas, including trade and commercial ties, military-security relations, and technology.
China's involvement in Africa has sparked criticism from some Western countries, who have accused China of neocolonialism and racial discrimination. China's relations with Robert Mugabe's regime in Zimbabwe have been particularly controversial. China was accused of supplying Zimbabwe with military equipment, including jet fighters, vehicles, and a radar system. In 2007, China declared it would limit its assistance to humanitarian aid, and in 2008, it asked Mugabe "to behave". Despite this, China has continued to be a popular foreign policy partner in Harare due to its stated foreign policy of non-intervention in the internal affairs of other countries.
China–Zimbabwe relations date back to January 1979, during the Rhodesian Bush War. Mugabe placed great importance on relations with China, especially after a 2003 standoff with the European Union resulted in capital flight and economic depression. China has become the biggest buyer of Zimbabwean tobacco, and Zimbabwe's trade deficit with China amounted to US$189 million in the first half of 2007. Trade is often conducted on barter terms due to Zimbabwe's shortage of hard currency, and China is particularly interested in Zimbabwe's supply of platinum. The Zimbabwean government also purchases large amounts of military hardware from China.
Zimbabwe's "Look East" policy, which aimed to expand bilateral and trade relations and offer priority to investors from several Asian countries, has focused increasingly on China, to the exclusion of other countries. Mugabe visited China numerous times, and in 2022, China gifted Zimbabwe a new parliament building and conference centre.
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China's approach to global governance and its relationship with international institutions
China's approach to global governance is informed by its historical context and cultural worldview. For millennia, China's rulers saw their country as a dominant global force – the 'Middle Kingdom' or 'zhongguo' – implying China is the cultural, political, and economic centre of the world. This worldview has shaped China's outlook on global governance, the rules, norms, and institutions that regulate international cooperation.
China's regional dominance was diminished in the 1800s and early 1900s due to the Opium Wars and territorial losses to foreign powers, and the last dynasty collapsed in 1911. Despite this, China's leaders aspired to restore the country's centrality in the world. In the past few decades, China has re-emerged as a major power, with a focus on regaining its influence over global governance institutions.
China's approach to global governance is multi-faceted. It actively engages with international institutions and agreements that align with its interests and norms, such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization, and the Paris Agreement on climate change. China has generally fulfilled its commitments to these institutions but resists assuming greater responsibilities expected of developed nations. China's insistence on being treated as a developing country creates tension with advanced economies.
In areas where norms and institutions are still evolving, such as internet governance, China collaborates with like-minded authoritarian powers like Russia to establish standards that reflect their interests. China promotes the concept of "cyber sovereignty," asserting state control over the internet within its borders. This approach could marginalise existing institutions and create a divided world with two distinct internets, one open and the other closed and favoured by autocracies.
China has also been accused of attempting to manipulate and subvert international organisations and standards-setting bodies, including the United Nations, to advance the goals of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). This includes installing CCP members in leadership positions and evading accountability for human rights violations. China's growing military power and aid diplomacy, particularly in Africa, have sparked criticism and concerns about neocolonialism and destabilisation.
China's approach to global governance is pragmatic and driven by its national interests. While it engages with existing institutions, it is also willing to undermine or bypass them if they conflict with its goals and norms. This increasingly assertive presence has the potential to deepen divides with other countries, particularly democracies committed to established norms and institutions.
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Frequently asked questions
China has been working to increase its international influence through soft power, which includes societal and cultural channels like literature, art, film, music, sports, and media campaigns. China also uses its economic success and military power to increase its standing and influence on the global stage.
China's historical context plays a significant role in shaping its diplomacy style. For centuries, China viewed itself as the "Middle Kingdom," the cultural, political, and economic center of the world. This worldview influences its current approach to global governance, seeking to re-establish its centrality in international institutions.
China pursues a multipronged strategy toward global governance. It supports international institutions and agreements that align with its goals and norms, such as the World Bank and the Paris Agreement on climate change. However, on issues where it diverges from existing norms, like human rights, it seeks to create alternative institutions and models.
Xi Jinping's concept of "Xi Jinping Thought on Diplomacy" emphasizes a more active approach to diplomacy rooted in traditional Chinese cultural values rather than Western models. It promotes socialism with Chinese characteristics and aims to strengthen the centralized leadership of the Party Central Committee in foreign affairs, pursuing China's national interests and influence on the world stage.
