Eleanor Finch
Western powers have historically used diplomacy and war to exert their influence and gain power, particularly in Qing China. The Western powers' desire to establish economic relations with China was driven by their need for Chinese goods such as silk, while China had little interest in Western products due to its self-sufficient economy. This dynamic led to the use of diplomatic strategies such as free trade agreements and the dispatch of delegations to negotiate with the Qing dynasty. The Opium Wars, which began in 1839, were a significant example of how Western powers used military conflict to force China to open its ports and allow foreign trade, resulting in a favourable balance of trade for Western nations. The Boxer Rebellion further highlighted China's vulnerability and the dominance of Western powers in the region. In addition to military coercion, Western powers also employed other diplomatic tactics such as debt-trap diplomacy, economic diplomacy, and gunboat diplomacy to exert their influence and achieve their goals.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Using economic relations through free trade | Establishing economic relations with the Qing dynasty |
| Using military power as a means of intimidation | Influencing others through displays of military power |
| Using debt to increase leverage over borrowing nations | Increasing leverage over borrowing nations |
| Using aid or other types of economic policy to achieve diplomatic goals | Achieving diplomatic goals through the use of aid or economic policy |
| Using espionage to gather information | Gathering information through espionage for use in various forms of diplomacy |
| Exchanging representatives | Exchanging permanent representatives with other nations |
| Using gifts to foster diplomatic relations | Gifting intimate portraits to representatives of other nations |
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What You'll Learn
- Western powers used free trade to establish economic relations with the Qing dynasty
- The Opium Wars forced China to open its ports to Western trade
- The Congress of Vienna established diplomatic norms for the 19th century
- The presentation of an ambassador's credentials to the head of state
- Gunboat diplomacy: displays of military power to intimidate and influence
Western powers used free trade to establish economic relations with the Qing dynasty
Initially, the Western powers faced challenges in their economic relations with the Qing dynasty due to China's self-sufficient economy. China was a major producer of silk, which was in high demand in Western markets, but it did not have a significant need for Western goods. Additionally, payment for Chinese goods was made in silver, which was limited in Western territories. This imbalance led to a trade deficit for the Western powers, who sought to address this through diplomatic means.
To establish economic relations with the Qing dynasty, the Western powers employed free trade as a diplomatic tool. They sought to increase their exports to China and gain access to Chinese markets. One notable example of this was the First Opium War (1839-1842), in which Britain sought to expand the opium trade in China. The war resulted in the defeat of the Chinese military and forced China to open up its ports to British trade through the Treaty of Nanjing. This marked a significant shift in China's economic policies and paved the way for further Western incursions.
Subsequent conflicts, such as the Anglo-French War, led to further territorial losses and concessions by China. The opening of "treaty ports" for international trade and the establishment of foreign-controlled concessions in major Chinese cities further solidified Western economic influence. The Boxer Rebellion in the late 19th century also highlighted China's vulnerability and the growing power of Western nations in the region.
The Western powers' use of free trade as a diplomatic tool had significant consequences for the Qing dynasty. It led to a period of economic pressure and military industrialization in China. Additionally, the influx of foreign goods and the disruption of traditional industries contributed to social and political unrest within the country. Ultimately, the Western powers' use of free trade played a role in the decline of the Qing dynasty and the eventual establishment of the Republic of China in 1912.
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The Opium Wars forced China to open its ports to Western trade
The Opium Wars, fought between Western powers and China in the mid-19th century, forced China to open its ports to Western trade. The First Opium War, fought between China and Britain from 1839 to 1842, was triggered by China's attempt to suppress the illegal opium trade, which had led to widespread addiction and social and economic disruption in the country. In response, Britain sent a naval expedition to force China to pay reparations and allow the opium trade. The war ended with the Treaty of Nanking, which ceded Hong Kong Island and surrounding islands to Britain and opened five cities as treaty ports open to Western traders: Shanghai, Canton, Ningbo, Fuzhou, and Xiamen (Amoy). The treaty also stipulated that China would pay a twenty-one million dollar reparation to Britain for destroyed opium.
The Second Opium War, fought by Britain and France against China from 1856 to 1860, resulted in further concessions from China, including the legalisation of the opium trade and the opening of more ports to Western trade. The Treaty of Tientsin (Tianjin) in 1858 provided for the residence of foreign envoys in Beijing, the opening of several new ports to Western trade, the right of foreign travel in the Chinese interior, and freedom of movement for Christian missionaries. The importation of opium was also legalised under this treaty.
The Opium Wars marked a shift in Chinese foreign policy, as the country transitioned from its traditional tribute system, which required foreign powers to acknowledge the superiority of Chinese culture and the authority of the Chinese ruler, to Western diplomatic practices and the creation of treaties. The treaties signed following the Opium Wars came to be known as the "'unequal treaties'" as they gave foreigners privileged status and extracted concessions from the Chinese. These treaties included the Treaty of Wangxia, the Treaty of Whampoa, and the Treaty of Tientsin (Tianjin), which granted Western powers a range of rights and privileges in China.
The Opium Wars had significant consequences for China, including the loss of territory, the legalisation of the opium trade, and the opening of its ports to Western trade. The wars also contributed to the weakening of the Qing dynasty, which was ultimately toppled in favour of republican China in the early 20th century. The era of "unequal treaties" and Western imperialism led to a "Century of Humiliation" in Chinese history, characterised by a loss of territorial control and sovereignty.
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The Congress of Vienna established diplomatic norms for the 19th century
Diplomacy has been used as a tool by Western powers to exert influence and gain power over other regions, as seen in the case of Qing China. The Western powers employed diplomatic techniques such as free trade to establish economic relations with the Qing Dynasty. They also utilised war and military power to force China to open its ports and make concessions through treaties, highlighting the dominance of Western powers and China's vulnerability.
The Congress of Vienna, held from 1814 to 1815, established many of the diplomatic norms for the 19th century. The objective of the Congress was to create a long-term peace plan for Europe by addressing critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not merely to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and maintain peace. This balance of power among nations contributed to the relative peace of the 19th century, also known as the "Hundred Years' Peace".
The Congress of Vienna established an international system of diplomatic rank, with ambassadors at the top as they represented their sovereigns. It also developed a system of diplomatic conflict resolution called the Concert of Europe, which aimed to manage crises and maintain peace through a balance of power. The Congress's ideas about the political order were based on the threat of intervention to enforce consented principles of monarchical legitimacy and relative equality among powers.
Additionally, the Congress of Vienna influenced the Paris Peace Conference after World War I, which adopted some of its procedures, such as differentiating between "powers with general interests" and "powers with special interests". The 19th century also saw the spread of European diplomatic models globally, with Asian countries adopting syncretic or European diplomatic systems.
Diplomacy in the 19th century continued to evolve with the advent of totalitarian regimes, which often honoured diplomatic rules selectively and viewed diplomacy as a means to achieve their ideological goals. Conference diplomacy was revived during and after World War I, with the Paris Peace Conference being a notable example.
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The presentation of an ambassador's credentials to the head of state
The process typically begins with the ambassador-designate meeting the foreign minister to request an audience with the head of state. At this initial meeting, the ambassador presents an unsealed copy of their credentials to the foreign minister. The original sealed letter of credence is then formally presented to the head of state in a ceremony laden with protocol and tradition. The ceremony often includes military honours and is a significant occasion, allowing state representatives to subtly convey messages or establish contact.
The letter of credence is a formal diplomatic letter addressed from one head of state to another. It introduces the ambassador and requests that they be given credence, or belief, in their claim to speak on behalf of their country. Traditionally, these letters were written in French, the lingua franca of diplomacy, but they may also be written in the official language of the sending state. When two countries have a lower level of diplomatic relations, the letter of credence is addressed to the foreign minister rather than the head of state.
The presentation of credentials is a critical step in the ambassador's role, as they cannot begin their duties until their credentials are accepted. This ceremony symbolises the official start of an ambassadorship and the diplomatic relationship between the two countries. The ambassador-designate is entitled to diplomatic immunity as soon as they enter the receiving country, even before their credentials are presented.
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Gunboat diplomacy: displays of military power to intimidate and influence
Gunboat diplomacy is a strategy used by Western powers to intimidate and influence other nations by demonstrating their superior military capabilities, particularly during the imperialist period of the 19th century. This form of diplomacy involves conspicuous displays of military power, typically naval assets, to imply or directly threaten the use of warfare if demands are not met.
A classic example of gunboat diplomacy is the Don Pacifico Incident in 1850, where the United Kingdom blockaded the Greek port of Piraeus. This was in retaliation for the assault of a British subject, David Pacifico, and the Greek government's failure to provide restitution. The mere presence of a warship or fleet of ships off the coast of a negotiating country was often enough to exert pressure and influence their decisions.
Another notable instance of gunboat diplomacy was the dispatch of Commodore Matthew Perry's fleet of "Black Ships" to Japan in 1853. The arrival of these four solid black warships in Tokyo Bay convinced Japan to open its ports to trade with the West, ending over two centuries of isolation.
Gunboat diplomacy has been employed by the United States in various instances, such as the occupation of Veracruz during the Mexican Revolution in 1914, and the Roosevelt Corollary's military occupations of Cuba in 1906, Nicaragua in 1912, and Veracruz, Mexico, in 1914. The concept is often associated with President Theodore Roosevelt's "Big Stick" ideology and his deployment of the ""Great White Fleet" in 1909.
While gunboat diplomacy has historically been a tool for coercion and intimidation, it is important to note that similar displays of military power can also serve other purposes. For instance, they can reassure allies of a nation's commitment to an alliance or demonstrate an empire's willingness to protect its periphery from external threats.
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Frequently asked questions
Western powers used diplomacy to gain power in Qing China by forcing them to open their ports to foreign trade through the Treaty of Nanjing after the Opium War with Britain.
An example of Gunboat diplomacy is the Don Pacifico Incident in 1850, where the United Kingdom blockaded the Greek port of Piraeus in retaliation for the harming of a British subject.
The West used debt-trap diplomacy to saddle borrowing nations with enormous debt so as to increase leverage over them.
An example of the West using economic diplomacy is the British flooding China with opium by 1830, which threatened China's balance of trade.
The United States gained independence by attracting the support of Britain's enemies, France and Spain, through the Committee of Secret Correspondence and by sending commissioners to other key countries.
