Eleanor Finch
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, saw the French people transform their state from an absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy, with the enactment of the French First Constitution in 1791. This new form of monarchy, also known as limited monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy, is a system of government where the monarch's authority is derived from and limited by a constitution. The ideals of the French Revolution, such as liberty and equality, influenced the establishment of constitutional monarchies in other countries as well, including the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch becomes a symbolic head of state, performing civic and representative roles while the real power is held by a democratically elected body, such as a parliament or a prime minister.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| The monarch is the head of state | The monarch is a symbol of the nation |
| The prime minister is the head of government | The monarch has technical skills |
| The monarch has limited powers | The monarch has a longstop constitutional function |
| The monarch is politically inert | The monarch is a hereditary head of state |
| The monarch appoints a prime minister | The monarch has a role in foreign relations |
| The monarch has a role in law-making | The monarch has a role in appointing ministers |
| The monarch has a role in approving treaties | The monarch has a role in national security |
| The monarch has a role in national security | The monarch has sovereign immunity |
| The monarch has a role in the judiciary | The monarch has a role in the executive |
| The monarch has a role in the legislative process | The monarch has a role in the civil service |
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What You'll Learn
The French Revolution and the sovereignty of the State
The French Revolution was a pivotal moment in the history of Western political thought, with its ideals of popular sovereignty, civil equality, and the promotion of rationality, progress, and personal happiness over religious faith. It was a period of immense idealism, fused with territorial ambition, and it witnessed the emergence of new political forms that were democratic and imperial, anticolonial and centralizing. The revolution was shaped by the radical ideas of the Enlightenment, with the works of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Montesquieu, and Voltaire influencing the course of events.
One of the defining features of the French Revolution was the struggle between advocates of national sovereignty and those of royal sovereignty, which constituted the principal dynamic of the period. The revolution saw the monarchy replaced by the French First Republic, with King Louis XVI being executed in January 1793. This marked a significant shift in the political landscape, as the country transitioned from an absolute monarchy to a republic, and later to the First Empire under Napoleon Bonaparte.
During the French Revolution, the concept of constitutional monarchy emerged as a compromise between the competing factions. The National Assembly, concerned about the potential self-interest of representatives, granted the king a suspensive veto to balance the interests of the people. This arrangement weakened the king's executive authority while ensuring that the interests of the people were considered. However, this constitution was not egalitarian by today's standards, as it excluded women and deprived them of essential rights and liberties.
The Jacobins, a pivotal force in the revolution, split into factions, with the Feuillants (moderates) supporting a constitutional monarchy, and the Montagnards and Girondins (radicals) advocating for more direct democratic action. The Feuillants, labelled as royalists, were targeted after the monarchy's fall. The Montagnards and Girondins, on the other hand, favoured the spread of new ideals of liberty and equality, challenging the king's loyalty. The National Convention, which succeeded the Legislative Assembly, further fractured into extreme factions, reflecting the increasing divide within the Jacobins.
In conclusion, the French Revolution and the sovereignty of the State were intricately linked. The revolution's ideals of popular sovereignty and civil equality challenged the monarchy's authority, leading to its downfall and the establishment of a republic. The concept of constitutional monarchy emerged as a compromise, but the struggle between national and royal sovereignty persisted throughout the various factions. The revolution's impact extended beyond France, influencing political thought and inspiring similar movements worldwide.
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The Glorious Revolution and the British monarchy
The Glorious Revolution of 1688–89 marked a shift from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy in England, later the United Kingdom. The deposition of King James II, a Roman Catholic, and his replacement by his daughter Mary II and her Dutch husband, William III of Orange, led to the primacy of parliamentary sovereignty. This represented a triumph for Whig views, as it confirmed the ruling power of Parliament over the Crown and restricted the monarch's power.
The new joint monarchs swore to govern according to the laws of Parliament, not the monarchy. The Bill of Rights 1689, based on a Declaration of Rights accepted by William and Mary, prohibited Catholics or those married to Catholics from claiming the throne. It also prevented the monarch from suspending laws, levying taxes, making royal appointments, or maintaining a standing army during peacetime without Parliament's consent.
The Glorious Revolution furthered the concept of constitutional monarchy, with the monarch as a symbolic head of state, bound by a constitution and sharing powers with a parliament. This form of monarchy, also known as limited, parliamentary, or democratic monarchy, differs from absolute monarchy, in which the monarch is the sole decision-maker.
The idea of constitutional monarchy has evolved over time, with various interpretations and implementations. Some argue that the monarch is politically inert and possesses technical skills that benefit the constitution. The role of the monarch within the constitution is a subject of ongoing discussion, with the understanding that the functions and structures of constitutional monarchy are contingent on the character of the individual occupying the role.
The Glorious Revolution's impact extended beyond England, influencing other countries' political systems and transformations from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy or republic.
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The Persian Constitutional Revolution and Pahlavi Iran
The Persian Constitutional Revolution, which took place between 1905 and 1911, was a pivotal event in Iranian history, marking the country's first steps towards constitutionalism and democracy. The revolution was driven by a diverse coalition of forces, including bazaar merchants, Islamic scholars (ulama), intellectuals, and radical reformers. They sought to curb the autocratic powers of the Qajar monarchy and establish a constitution that guaranteed the rights of the people, limited the authority of the sovereign, and ensured the separation of powers.
The revolution was sparked by protests against the financial mismanagement and extravagant spending of the fourth Qajar monarch, Naser al-Din Shah, who was assassinated in 1896. His successor, Mozaffar al-Din Shah, faced a financial crisis and relied heavily on foreign loans, leading to protests against the collection of tariffs to repay these loans. The revolutionaries argued that Iran's natural resources, such as its oil industry, were being sold off to foreign powers, while the country's economy was being destroyed by unfair tax policies.
During the Constitutional Revolution, Sheikh Fazlullah Nouri initially supported the call for constitutionalism and a limitation of the monarchy's powers. However, when Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar, a monarch, attempted to roll back democratic reforms and consolidate his authority, Nouri reversed his position and sided with the monarchy. Despite this opposition, the revolutionaries persisted, and the 1906 constitution was signed by Mozaffar al-Din Shah before his death in 1907.
The 1906 constitution, however, was not fully adhered to, and Iran continued to experience political turmoil and foreign intervention. In 1921, a coup d'état took place, leading to the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty as the new sovereigns of Iran. Reza Shah Pahlavi, with the support of the United Kingdom, established a monarchy. While this marked a change in the ruling dynasty, the country's struggles with constitutionalism and foreign influence continued.
The Pahlavi dynasty, particularly under Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who took the throne after his father, Reza Shah Pahlavi, was exiled in 1941, became closely associated with Western powers and implemented secularization and modernization policies. This led to a backlash from conservative religious forces and those opposed to Western influence, culminating in the 1979 Iranian Islamic Revolution, which overthrew the Pahlavi monarchy and established an Islamic republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.
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The role of the monarch in a constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy, also known as limited monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not the sole decision-maker. In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch is the head of state but does not hold exclusive law-making power or sovereignty, as this lies with an elected parliament or other governing bodies.
The monarch's role is symbolic and non-partisan, providing a sense of continuity and stability to the nation. They are expected to remain politically neutral and above the political fray, which can be an asset to the state. The monarch's role is also ceremonial, including attending national occasions, visiting public services, and supporting local organizations. The monarch's family often supports them in these duties.
Constitutional monarchies can be found in various countries, including the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, Australia, Canada, Jamaica, and New Zealand, among others. The monarch in a constitutional monarchy is typically a hereditary position, and while they may possess technical skills and have discretion in certain areas, their role is limited by the constitution and subject to established legal frameworks.
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The democratic principles of constitutional monarchies
A constitutional monarchy, also known as a limited monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which the monarch's authority is derived from and limited by a constitution. In this system, the monarch is the head of state, but the real power is held by a parliament or other governing body. This is in contrast to absolute monarchies, where the monarch is the sole decision-maker and holds absolute power.
The United Kingdom, for example, is a constitutional monarchy with a long history of balancing monarchy and democracy. The monarch has the power to appoint a prime minister, proclaim laws, and conduct foreign relations, but these powers are often exercised on the advice of the prime minister and ministers. The monarch is also subject to certain traditions and conventions, such as the principle that they cannot enter the House of Commons, reflecting the idea that the executive should not intimidate the representatives of the people.
Other countries that have developed democracy while retaining their monarchs include Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, Spain, and Denmark. These countries have achieved this balance by subjecting their hereditary heads of state to rules and limitations that ensure their actions align with democratic principles.
The transition from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy often occurs during revolutionary periods, as seen in France during the French Revolution, when the French people turned their state into a constitutional monarchy with the French First Constitution in 1791. This constitution deprived the monarch of exclusive law-making power and established popular sovereignty, reflecting the ideals of the Revolution.
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Frequently asked questions
A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not the sole decision-maker. The monarch shares political power with a constitutional government, such as a parliament.
During the French Revolution, the Jacobins, who were committed to the ideals of the Revolution, split into more and less radical factions. The Feuillants, who were moderate and pro-royal, were staunch constitutional monarchists firm in their defence of the King. The French Constitution of 1791 established a constitutional monarchy, with the king allowed a suspensive veto to balance the interests of the people.
The UK is a democratic constitutional monarchy. The Magna Carta of 1215 imposed the first constraints upon the English monarch. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 furthered the constitutional monarchy, with the monarch subject to the Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement 1701. Over time, political leadership shifted from the monarch to ministers accountable to Parliament.
