Malcolm Rivera
Secret diplomacy, or the practice of negotiating international agreements without public knowledge, has been a controversial aspect of liberal democracies and is considered one of the causes of World War I. The complex network of alliances and treaties between European powers, kept hidden from the public, created an environment of confusion, suspicion, and instability that ultimately led to the outbreak of the war. The revelation of these secret agreements by the Bolsheviks in 1917 caused a strong reaction against secret diplomacy, with US President Woodrow Wilson advocating for open covenants of peace, openly arrived at in his Fourteen Points address to Congress. The impact of secret diplomacy on the onset of World War I highlights the ongoing debate around transparency in government and the challenges of studying this covert aspect of international relations.
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What You'll Learn
The Treaty of London
Secret diplomacy and the complex network of alliances between European powers played a significant role in the outbreak of World War I. One notable example of this was the Treaty of London, signed on April 26, 1915.
As the war progressed, both the Central Powers and the Entente sought to recruit neutral countries to their side. Italy became a desirable ally due to its strategic position in the Mediterranean. The Central Powers clashed over Germany's promise to the Italians, offering them the Trentino region (then occupied by Austria-Hungary) in return for their participation in the war. However, Italy's bargaining power increased due to Austria-Hungary's struggles against Russia, and they demanded even more territory.
Terms of the Treaty
The Entente powers ultimately offered Italy more substantial territorial gains, most of which fell within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The terms of the Treaty of London included:
- Italy would receive territorial concessions, including lands within the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
- Italy would receive a share of any eventual war indemnity corresponding to their efforts and sacrifices.
- In the event of colonial expansion by France and Great Britain in Africa at Germany's expense, Italy could claim equitable compensation.
- Great Britain agreed to facilitate a loan of at least £50,000,000 to Italy.
- The treaty was to be kept secret.
Impact and Legacy
Italy officially entered World War I on the side of the Entente powers after signing the Treaty of London. On May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary but notably did not declare war on Germany. The treaty's promises of territorial gains were dependent on an Allied victory, particularly at the Gallipoli Peninsula, which proved to be a significant challenge for the Allies due to strong Turkish resistance.
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The Treaty of Bucharest
Secret diplomacy has been regarded as one of the causes of World War I. The Treaty of Bucharest, concluded between Romania and the Entente powers (Britain, France, Italy, and Russia) on 17 August 1916, is a prime example of this. Under this treaty, Romania pledged to attack Austria-Hungary and not to seek a separate peace in exchange for certain territorial gains. Article 16 of the treaty mandated that "the present arrangement shall be held secret".
The treaty was a significant development as it brought Romania, a previously neutral country, into the war on the side of the Entente powers. This had important strategic implications, as Romania shared borders with several Central Powers, including Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria. Romania's entry into the war threatened to open up new fronts and potentially cut off supply lines. Additionally, Romania's oil resources were an important factor, as the Entente powers sought to secure access to this vital resource.
Overall, the Treaty of Bucharest was a significant development in the diplomatic history of World War I. It brought Romania into the war on the side of the Entente powers, had important strategic implications, and exemplified the complex and secretive diplomacy of the time. The ultimate failure of the treaty and the publication of its contents contributed to a broader reaction against secret diplomacy and a call for more open and transparent international relations.
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Secret treaties as a cause of WWI
Secret treaties were highly important in the power-balancing diplomacy of 18th and 19th-century Europe. The "elaborate alliance systems" among European powers, "each secured by a network of secret treaties, financial arrangements, and 'military understandings'", are often cited as one of the causes of World War I.
One of the important secret treaties was the Treaty of London, concluded on 26 April 1915, in which Italy was promised certain territorial concessions in exchange for joining the war on the Triple Entente (Allied) side. Another secret treaty was the Treaty of Bucharest, concluded between Romania and the Triple Entente powers (Britain, France, Italy, and Russia) on 17 August 1916. In this treaty, Romania pledged to attack Austria-Hungary and not to seek a separate peace in exchange for certain territorial gains. Article 16 of the Treaty of Bucharest provided that "the present arrangement shall be held secret".
After the October Revolution brought the Bolsheviks to power in Russia in November 1917, Leon Trotsky published the secret treaties that the Tsarist government had made with the Entente powers, including the Treaty of London and the Constantinople Agreement. This move caused international embarrassment and a strong, sustained reaction against secret diplomacy. US President Woodrow Wilson was an opponent of secret diplomacy and believed it was a threat to peace. He made the abolition of secret diplomacy the first point of his Fourteen Points, set forth in a speech to Congress on 8 January 1918, after the country had entered the war. Wilson dissociated the United States from the Allies' earlier secret commitments and sought to abolish them forever once the war had been won. The Fourteen Points were based on a draft paper prepared by Walter Lippmann and his colleagues, which analysed the secret treaties and developed a position that conceded to the Allies but removed the "poison".
The poor quality of Russia's leadership has been noted by historians, and the country's internal instability was a concern for the French president, Poincaré, in 1917. The German leadership was also desperate to end the war and was willing to compromise, including the restoration of Belgium. For more than five months, from August 1916 until the end of January 1917, leaders from Germany, Britain, and the United States secretly struggled to end the war. However, their efforts were largely unsuccessful, and the war continued until 1918.
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The role of propaganda
Propaganda as a Weapon
Propaganda played a crucial role in shaping public opinion and maintaining morale on the home front. Governments on both sides recognised the power of propaganda to influence their citizens' attitudes towards the war. Posters, newspapers, and other forms of media were used extensively to disseminate propaganda messages. These messages often glorified military service, encouraged patriotism, and fostered hatred towards the enemy. For example, in Britain, the image of Lord Kitchener with his finger pointing and the words "Your Country Needs YOU" was used to recruit soldiers for the front lines.
Undermining the Enemy
Propaganda was also employed to undermine the enemy's morale and sow discord in their ranks. This could take the form of spreading false or exaggerated stories about the enemy's actions, strengths, or weaknesses. For instance, the Allies often portrayed the Germans as barbarians or savages to justify their actions and gain public support for the war effort. Similarly, the Central Powers spread rumours and propaganda to turn people against their opponents.
Coordination and Collaboration
The Allied forces, in particular, recognised the importance of coordination and collaboration in their propaganda efforts. They held conferences and established committees to ensure that their messages were consistent and effective. The Allies also targeted neutral countries with their propaganda, hoping to gain their support or at least prevent them from aiding the Central Powers. This included rationing raw materials to neutrals to prevent them from resupplying Germany.
Economic Warfare
Propaganda was a tool in economic warfare as well. For example, Britain's naval blockade against Germany was not only a military strategy but also a propaganda tool. By restricting Germany's access to resources, the Allies could portray the Central Powers as being on the brink of collapse, encouraging their own citizens and potentially swaying neutrals to their side.
Post-War Impact
The use of propaganda during World War I had a lasting impact on society and diplomacy. The revelation of secret treaties and the exposure of propaganda techniques contributed to a growing distrust of government and a demand for more transparency in diplomatic affairs. This led to efforts, such as US President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, which called for "open covenants of peace, openly arrived at" and the elimination of secret diplomacy.
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The abolition of secret diplomacy
Secret diplomacy and the existence of secret treaties were major factors in the lead-up to World War I. The complex network of alliances and treaties between European powers, often kept hidden from public view, is commonly cited as one of the causes of the war.
The creation of the League of Nations, as proposed by Wilson, was a significant step towards the abolition of secret diplomacy. The League introduced parliamentary diplomacy and mandated that all member states register every treaty or international agreement with the League secretariat, with no treaty being binding unless registered. This registration system continued after World War II through the United Nations, with Article 102 of its Charter requiring the registration and publication of all treaties and international agreements.
Despite these efforts, secret diplomacy continued to persist. Talks and negotiations remained secret, with only the results being announced to the public. The rise of totalitarian regimes also impacted diplomacy, as these regimes often disregarded diplomatic rules and eschewed negotiation and compromise.
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Frequently asked questions
Secret diplomacy refers to international agreements and negotiations that are kept hidden from the public.
Secret diplomacy is considered one of the causes of World War I due to the "elaborate alliance systems" among European powers, each secured by a network of secret treaties, financial arrangements, and military understandings. These secret agreements created confusion, excitement, and fears in the public, and the lack of transparency made it difficult to trust and collaborate with other nations.
Some notable secret treaties before World War I include the Treaty of London, in which Italy was promised territorial concessions for joining the war, and the Treaty of Bucharest, where Romania pledged to attack Austria-Hungary in exchange for territorial gains. These treaties remained secret until the Bolsheviks published them after taking power in Russia in November 1917.
The publication of the secret treaties caused international embarrassment and led to a strong reaction against secret diplomacy. US President Woodrow Wilson, in his Fourteen Points address to Congress, called for the abolition of secret diplomacy and the establishment of "open covenants of peace, openly arrived at."
While secret diplomacy became the object of controversy and was seen as a contradiction to liberal democracy, it has not completely disappeared. Even today, many diplomatic documents remain classified or unavailable to the public, and the practice continues to be debated, especially in the context of democracies.
