Eleanor Finch
Theodore Roosevelt's diplomatic approach was characterised by his big stick policy, which entailed the threat of force rather than its outright use. This policy was notably applied in Latin America, where the US had a strong military presence, and in Asia, where Roosevelt sought to maintain a balance of power. Roosevelt's foreign policy initiatives included the establishment of the Panama Canal, which connected the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and interventions in the Russo-Japanese War and the Venezuelan debt crisis.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Diplomacy maxim | "Speak softly and carry a big stick" |
| Diplomacy goal | Make the U.S. a global power |
| Panama Canal | First President to leave the country during his term of office to visit Panama |
| Supported a Panamanian revolution with money and a naval blockade | |
| Converted the Panama Canal Zone into a major staging area for American military forces | |
| Latin America | Assertive approach |
| Supported arbitration to resolve disputes | |
| Focused on Venezuela and Santo Domingo (now the Dominican Republic) | |
| Asia | Maintained a balance of power |
| Sent the U.S. Great White Fleet to the western Pacific Ocean as a show of force | |
| Negotiated the Open Door policy throughout China and the rest of Asia | |
| Brokered a peace deal between Russia and Japan | |
| Use of force | Only the threat of force was needed to achieve foreign policy goals |
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What You'll Learn
Latin America and the Caribbean
Roosevelt's actions in Venezuela and the Dominican Republic (then known as Santo Domingo) were part of his broader foreign policy approach, known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. Issued in 1823, the Monroe Doctrine stated that the United States would not accept European intervention in the Americas. However, Roosevelt expanded upon this doctrine in his annual messages to Congress in 1904 and 1905, declaring that the United States had the responsibility to preserve order and protect life and property in Latin American countries. This became known as his Big Stick ideology.
The Roosevelt Corollary asserted that the United States would serve as the policeman of the Western Hemisphere, intervening in Latin American countries that manifested serious economic problems or committed flagrant wrongdoings that threatened the stability of the region. This policy was designed to preclude European intervention and maintain American dominance in the region. Over time, it led to increasing resentment in Latin America and confrontations with peoples in the Caribbean and Central America.
Roosevelt's establishment of the Panama Canal was another significant aspect of his diplomacy in Latin America and the Caribbean. The canal, which had long been a dream of U.S. naval leaders, provided a strategic passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through Central America. Puerto Rico also assumed importance due to its strategic position in the Caribbean, serving as a naval base for the defense of the Panama Canal and a link to the rest of Latin America.
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The Monroe Doctrine
The doctrine soon became a defining and long-standing tenet of US policy in the Western Hemisphere, invoked by US statesmen and presidents over the years, including Theodore Roosevelt, who expanded its meaning to justify sending US troops into Latin American countries ostensibly to keep out European powers. The doctrine was also invoked in 1962 when the Soviet Union began constructing missile-launching sites in Cuba.
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The Panama Canal
In the 1880s, a French company began work in Panama, with the permission of Colombia, which owned the territory at the time. Led by Ferdinand de Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal, the French made significant progress, excavating about 40% of the canal before they were forced to abandon the project due to tropical diseases and bankruptcy.
In 1901, the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty abrogated the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty and licensed the United States to build and manage its own canal. The US Senate debated the location of the proposed canal, with some advocating for the Nicaraguan route, while others supported the Panamanian route. Ultimately, the Senate voted in favour of building the canal through Panama.
President Theodore Roosevelt was a strong advocate for the construction of the Panama Canal. He believed that it would enhance international commerce and serve the cause of international justice. Roosevelt also held Latin Americans, particularly Colombians' legal rights, in contempt, and he was determined to secure the right to build the canal. When the Colombian government rejected the terms of the treaty, Roosevelt responded by dispatching US warships to Panama City and Colón to support Panamanian independence. With the support of US naval power, Panama successfully declared its independence from Colombia in 1903.
The newly independent Republic of Panama named Philippe Bunau-Varilla, a French engineer involved in the earlier French canal attempt, as its Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. Bunau-Varilla negotiated the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903, which provided the United States with a 10-mile-wide strip of land for the canal, a one-time payment of $10 million to Panama, and an annual annuity of $250,000. The United States also agreed to guarantee Panama's independence.
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The 'Big Stick' policy
Theodore Roosevelt's "Big Stick" policy was a key strategy in his approach to foreign diplomacy and building an American empire. The "Big Stick" policy was based on the idea of using the threat of force rather than the outright use of force to achieve foreign policy goals and maintain a balance of power. This approach was influenced by a West African proverb that Roosevelt often cited: "Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far."
Roosevelt believed that America's military successes meant that the actual use of force was not necessary, and instead, the threat of force was sufficient to assert American influence and protect its interests globally. This policy was particularly effective in Latin America, where the United States had a strong military presence and could quickly act on any threats. Roosevelt's "Big Stick" policy in Latin America has been characterised as an "assertive approach" and is also known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.
In Latin America, Roosevelt aimed to police small debtor nations with unstable governments and intervene to maintain peace and stability in the region. For example, in 1902, when Venezuela faced a blockade by Germany and Britain over unpaid loans, Roosevelt demanded arbitration to resolve the dispute. Similarly, in the Dominican Republic (then Santo Domingo), Roosevelt ordered an American collector to assume control of customs houses and collect duties to prevent possible European military action over unpaid debts.
Roosevelt's "Big Stick" policy also extended to Asia, although the United States had a lesser military presence in the region. When the Russo-Japanese War erupted in 1904, Roosevelt initially supported Japan to curb Russian influence but later acted to broker a peace deal to maintain a balance of power between the two nations. When Japan forced American business interests out of Manchuria in 1906-1907, Roosevelt sent the U.S. Great White Fleet on manoeuvres in the western Pacific Ocean as a show of force while publicly describing it as a goodwill tour.
One of the most significant manifestations of the "Big Stick" policy was the establishment of the Panama Canal. Roosevelt supported a Panamanian revolution against Colombia with money and a naval blockade to secure the construction of the canal, which connected the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The canal was completed in 1914 and significantly shortened the voyage between the East and West Coasts of the United States, enhancing its military and economic interests.
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The Russo-Japanese War
As the war progressed, Japan enjoyed a string of victories, including the taking of Port Arthur with little loss of life, the occupation of the southern half of Sakhalin Island, and the annihilation of Russia's Baltic Fleet. However, Japan's treasury was exhausted, and its forces in Manchuria faced supply line issues. Recognising that a long war was not to their advantage, the Japanese government sought intermediaries to assist in bringing the war to a negotiated conclusion. They approached U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, who had publicly expressed a pro-Japanese stance at the beginning of the war.
Roosevelt's motivations for intervening in the war were complex. While he did not regret the Japanese defeat of the Russians, he did not want Japan's victory to be so great as to upset the balance of power in East Asia. He understood that Japan was a rising power and believed that the U.S. would eventually find itself in a struggle with Japan for control of the Pacific. He wanted to delay that conflict as long as possible. Additionally, Roosevelt believed it was time for America to take its rightful place on the world stage and increase its influence and prestige.
Roosevelt approached both nations about mediating peace negotiations. Although Russia and Japan initially refused his offer, they eventually accepted his "good offices" and met with him in 1905 in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The negotiations centred on access to ports and territories in Manchuria and Korea, control of Sakhalin Island, and the question of reparations. The Japanese delegation arrived with a series of demands, including reparations, Japanese control of Korea, and Russian withdrawal from Manchuria. The Russian delegation's strategy was largely defensive, responding to Japan's demands by modifying, accepting, or rejecting them.
When negotiations reached an impasse, Roosevelt stepped in with a proposal to address the territory issue: Russia would pay to "buy back" the northern part of Sakhalin from Japanese control. The Russians were adamant that they would not pay any amount of money that would act as a disguised indemnity. After a long internal debate, Japan agreed to take only the southern half of the island, without any payment. The Treaty of Portsmouth, signed on September 5, 1905, gave consent to the Japanese colonisation of Korea and confirmed Japan's emergence as the pre-eminent power in East Asia. It also forced Russia to abandon its expansionist policies in the region. Roosevelt's successful mediation of the Russo-Japanese War earned him the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 and established the United States as a significant force in world diplomacy.
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Frequently asked questions
Roosevelt's approach to diplomacy was characterised by his Big Stick policy, also known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. This policy involved using the threat of force, rather than outright force, to achieve foreign policy goals and maintain a balance of power. Roosevelt believed that the United States' past military successes meant that it could rely on the threat of force to get what it wanted.
Roosevelt's "Big Stick" policy was particularly effective in Latin America, where the United States had a strong military presence. Roosevelt was able to wield the threat of force to intervene in Latin American countries and maintain stability in the region. This included intervening in Venezuela and the Dominican Republic (then Santo Domingo) to resolve disputes with European countries over debts.
In Asia, the United States had a weaker military presence, so Roosevelt sought to maintain a balance of power between Asian countries to protect American interests. When the Russo-Japanese War broke out in 1904, Roosevelt initially supported Japan but later sent the U.S. Great White Fleet to the western Pacific Ocean as a show of force against Japanese influence in the region. Roosevelt also supported the Open Door policy in China, which aimed to keep the country open to trade with all countries.
