Isabella Carter
The military of ancient Rome was one of the largest pre-modern professional armies in existence, with over 400,000 soldiers protecting over 7,000 kilometres of borders at its peak. The Roman military was a central aspect of the nation's expansion and establishment of an empire. Roman warfare was remarkably successful, and the nation's martial values, innovative tactics, and vast resources allowed it to dominate the Mediterranean and beyond. Roman diplomacy played a crucial role in this expansion, with the Romans developing a distinct diplomatic approach that included principles such as respect for treaties, good faith, and personal contact. The threat of their formidable army, however, also allowed them to achieve their goals without fighting.
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What You'll Learn
Roman military culture and soldier variety
Roman military culture was heavily influenced by the need for expansion and protection, with the empire's growth largely achieved through military force. This culture was described by British historian Peter Heather as "just like the Marines, but much nastier". The army was a large, disciplined, and skilled force, and soldiers enjoyed wide freedom of worship in the polytheistic Roman system. Literacy was highly valued in the Roman military, with literacy rates exceeding those of Roman society as a whole.
Roman soldiers spent only a fraction of their lives on campaign, with most of their time dedicated to routine military duties such as training, patrolling, and equipment maintenance. They also played a crucial role outside the military sphere, serving as a provincial governor's police force and contributing to the construction of civil infrastructure, including roads, bridges, ports, and public buildings.
The Roman army consisted of various soldier types, including heavy infantry, light infantry, cavalry, and labourers. Heavy infantry, known as legionaries, formed the basic military force of the ancient Roman army. Light infantry, such as the Accensus, was made up of the poorest men in the army. Cavalry had different roles, including the cavalryman (Alaris) and the cavalry standard-bearer (Draconarius). Soldiers with specialised skills, known as Immunes, were exempt from labour and guard work and received better pay. They included engineers, artillerymen, musicians, medical staff, and military police.
The Roman army also included auxiliary troops, non-citizen soldiers attached to the citizen legions. These auxiliaries could earn Roman citizenship upon discharge, along with legal acceptance of their marriages. Additionally, the army had a medical corps, with physicians attached to each unit. While there were no formal requirements to become a physician, they received a military manual for guidance. The army also had a secret service, the Frumentarii, who mostly operated in uniform.
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Roman economy and military funding
The Roman economy and its military funding played a crucial role in the expansion and longevity of the Roman Empire. Military spending was the largest item of public spending throughout Roman history, with a very high percentage of all revenue from taxes and rents going towards it—about 80% of the imperial budget around 150 AD. This funding was essential for maintaining the vast Roman military and its infrastructure, which included the Roman navy with 30,000 to 40,000 personnel.
The Roman economy thrived through diverse trade and commerce, connecting various regions via an extensive road and sea network. This facilitated the circulation of commodities such as pottery, glass, wine, and olive oil, as well as precious metals and goods exported to distant lands like Arabia, India, and China. International trade routes generated substantial taxable income, with import taxes as high as one-eighth of the cargo's value towards the end of the empire.
Taxation was a critical source of funding for the Roman military. The empire implemented various types of taxes, including land tax (Tributum Soli) on fertile provinces, poll tax (Tributum Capitis) based on an individual's ability to pay, and customs duties (Portoria) on goods entering cities. Additionally, Rome collected taxes by assessing an individual's wealth and imposing a 1% tax, with higher wealth classes paying more. These taxes covered military expenses such as salaries, equipment, and campaign costs, as well as social programs like the grain dole.
The Roman economy also benefited from supply contracts with the military, which generated trade with producers near the bases, throughout the provinces, and across borders. This economic development contributed to the long-term sustainability of the military bases themselves. However, taxes to support the military could be burdensome for traders and merchants, sometimes leading to resentment and tension within the provinces.
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Roman military's expansionist role
The military of ancient Rome was one of the largest pre-modern professional standing armies in existence. At its height, it protected over 7,000 kilometres of borders and consisted of over 400,000 legionaries and auxiliaries. The Roman military was a key element in the rise of Rome, from a small settlement in Latium to the capital of a vast empire.
Rome established itself as a nation by making aggressive use of its high military potential. The Roman army was not solely a defensive force; instead, it was often a tool of aggressive expansion. Notably, Rome would raise two armies annually to campaign abroad. The army was comprised of soldiers ranging from lightly armed mounted archers to heavy infantry, in regiments of varying size and quality. The soldiers were well-trained and highly disciplined. The army also included doctors and medical assistants, attached to most military units, and even army hospitals within fortified camps.
The expansionist role of the Roman military was facilitated by several factors. Firstly, Italy, where Rome was located, was a peninsula not easily attacked. This provided a strategic advantage and a degree of protection from external threats. Additionally, Rome had a large pool of fighting men, a centralised command and line of supply, expert engineers, and effective diplomacy through a network of allies. Rome's allies provided vital support, including additional men, grain, and ships. Furthermore, Rome's martial values and belief in its cultural superiority fuelled its expansionist agenda. War was a source of prestige for the ruling class, and career progression was often tied to successful military endeavours.
The Roman military's expansionist role also had economic implications. During the time of expansion in the Republic and early Empire, Roman armies plundered conquered territories, displaying their wealth upon their return and fuelling the economy. This led some historians to argue that the Roman economy was essentially a plunder economy. However, this view has been questioned, as Rome also ran many campaigns at a loss. The military capability of Rome was always primarily based on the maintenance of an active fighting force acting at or beyond its military frontiers.
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Roman diplomacy and overseas empire
Rome's military might was a key factor in its rise from a small settlement in Latium to the capital of a vast empire. However, Roman diplomacy also played a significant role in its overseas expansion and the establishment of its geopolitical dominance.
Roman diplomacy, which developed gradually over time, consisted of establishing treaties of peace, alliance, and agreements during and after wars. Sending and receiving embassies, settling disputes, and investigating matters affecting Roman interests were also key aspects. The concept of 'amicitia', or 'friendship', was central to Roman imperialism, and the language and ideals associated with it were important tools for empire-building. Countries that "voluntarily" submitted to Roman power were granted a great deal of autonomy and were welcomed with dignity, invited to religious and state ceremonies, and allowed to send envoys to Rome.
Rome's earliest period of overseas expansion was characterised by brief periods of intense military and diplomatic activity, such as the rollback of Seleucid power from Asia Minor and Greece in 192–188 BC, followed by long periods of inactivity. Roman diplomacy in the Greek Mediterranean applied a realist approach, focusing on the harsh nature of interactions among states under conditions of anarchy.
The Roman Empire was a federation of formally independent states, cities, or smaller associations that were economically, politically, and religiously autonomous. This allowed for internal diplomacy, with these entities having the right to send envoys to Rome to settle matters ranging from commerce to requests for funding.
In conclusion, while military force was undoubtedly a significant factor in Rome's overseas expansion, diplomacy played an equally important role. Through the use of treaties, alliances, and the concept of 'amicitia', Rome was able to establish and maintain its vast empire.
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Roman militarism and imperialism
Rome's military might was one of the largest pre-modern professional standing armies in history. At its height, it protected over 7,000 kilometres of borders and consisted of over 400,000 legionaries and auxiliaries, making it the most important institution in the Roman world. The Roman military was not solely a defensive force but a tool of aggressive expansion. Rome established itself as a nation by making aggressive use of its high military potential. Every year, two armies were raised to campaign abroad. The army was often used to gain new farmlands for the growing population or retiring soldiers.
Roman militarism was driven by a thirst for war and a belief in the necessity of defending and imposing its cultural superiority on others. Martial values were highly regarded, and war was a source of prestige for the ruling class, who advanced their careers through successful military endeavours. The Roman legions were a well-trained and highly disciplined fighting force, with innovative tactics and a centralised command and line of supply. They were also inclusive in their approach to conquered peoples, allowing them to strengthen and broaden their power base.
Roman imperialism was facilitated by their military strength, which allowed them to establish an empire through aggressive expansion. Roman diplomacy played a crucial role in this process, involving the establishment of peace and alliance treaties, generals' agreements during wars, and the exchange of embassies. The threat of Rome's powerful army often enabled them to get what they wanted without fighting. Plunder from conquered territories also fuelled the Roman economy, with the display of massive wealth upon their return from campaigns.
However, it is important to note that Roman imperialism was not solely dependent on military might. Language and ideals, such as the concept of amicitia ('friendship'), also contributed significantly to their empire-building. Roman expansion followed a pattern of brief periods of vigorous military and diplomatic activity, followed by long periods of inactivity.
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Frequently asked questions
The Roman military was one of the largest pre-modern professional standing armies in history. At its height, it protected over 7,000 kilometres of borders and consisted of over 400,000 legionaries and auxiliaries. The army was central to the expansion of the Roman Empire and was often a source of revenue, plundering conquered territories. The soldiers were well-trained and highly disciplined, and the army had doctors, engineers, and effective naval vessels.
Roman diplomacy (509 BCE–14 CE) involved establishing peace and alliance treaties, sending and receiving embassies, and offering and accepting interstate mediations. They also used offensive diplomacy, leveraging their military power to get what they wanted without fighting.
Rome's military might and expansionist policies were complemented by their diplomatic strategies. They established a distinctive diplomatic procedure, emphasising respect for treaties, good faith, and personal contact. Their military power provided a strong backing for their diplomatic negotiations, allowing them to expand their influence and establish dominance in the region.
