Eleanor Finch
At the turn of the 20th century, Iran was facing colonial pressures from Russia and Great Britain, which ultimately led to the carving up of the country into spheres of influence. Simultaneously, Iran underwent the Constitutional Revolution (1905-1911), sparked by public protests against the Shah's oppressive rule and foreign influence. This revolution, driven by an alliance of various groups, aimed to establish a constitution and parliament to limit the Shah's power and secure separation. Despite facing challenges, the revolution marked a significant shift towards constitutionalism in Iran, setting the stage for further political developments in the country.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Objective of the revolution | Establishment of a constitutional regime in Persia |
| Revolution led to | Establishment of a parliament in Iran |
| Revolutionaries | Bazaar merchants, the ulama, and a small group of radical reformers |
| Opposition to | A foreign director of customs |
| Resulted in | Iran becoming a constitutional monarchy with legislative powers vested in a majles, or parliament |
| Constitution | Adopted by referendum on 2 and 3 December 1979 |
| Constitution | Made up of 175 articles in 12 chapters |
| Constitution | Main democratic procedures and rights are subordinate to the Guardian Council and the Supreme Leader |
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What You'll Learn
The Persian Constitutional Revolution
The revolution was the culmination of a growing opposition movement in Iran, inspired by the French Revolution, Freemasonry, and freethinkers, as well as Islamic advocates of political and moral reforms. The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 and the Russian Revolution of 1905 also played a role in bolstering the movement, as an Asian power had defeated a European power for the first time in a century.
The Constitutional Revolution began with protests against a foreign director of customs enforcing tariff collections to pay for a loan to finance Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar's extravagant tour of Europe. The revolutionaries, mainly bazaar merchants, ulama (Islamic scholars), and a small group of radical reformers, argued that Iran's oil industry was being sold to the British, and that the Shah was selling assets to pay off his foreign debt. There was also a dispute over sugar prices, with the governor of Tehran ordering the bastinado (foot whipping) of some sugar merchants for refusing to lower their prices.
The revolution resulted in the establishment of a parliament and the signing of a constitution in 1906. The constitution was based on the Quran, with the Belgian constitution serving as a partial model. However, the text of the constitution did not have universal support, and the revolution faced internal differences, colonial interference, and reluctance by the Qajar Shahs to relinquish power.
The revolution ended in December 1911 when deputies of the Second Majlis were expelled from parliament with the support of Russian troops. Despite this setback, the spirit of constitutionalism persisted, and Iran's parliament amended the constitution in 1925, replacing the Qajar dynasty with the Pahlavi dynasty as the sovereigns of Iran.
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The role of expatriates and expatriates' ideas
At the turn of the 20th century, Iran was facing increasing colonial pressures from the Great Powers of Russia and Great Britain, who sought to exert control over the country. This dynamic played out in the context of the Constitutional Revolution (1905-1911), which was driven by a diverse array of social, intellectual, and political forces.
Expatriates and their ideas played a significant role in shaping the course of the Constitutional Revolution. Themes propagated by expatriates, particularly those with radical aspirations, found a receptive audience among dissident circles in Persia. The influence of expatriate ideas can be seen in the emergence of a loose network of assemblies (majles) and societies (anjomans) that evolved into forums for political discourse, welcoming both clerical and secular dissidents who advocated for reform. These forums represented a broadening of appeal beyond the core group of Babis, who remained loyal to the ideal of mass opposition to the conservative ʿolamāʾ and Qajar rule.
The decisive victory of Japan over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) was hailed in the Persian press as a triumph of a modern, industrial nation over a feudal society. This event generated hope and despair about the need for Persia to embrace similar transformations. The perception that Japan's constitutional framework was the "secret of its strength" contributed to the growing appeal of constitutionalism in Iran.
The expatriate community, including influential preachers of the Constitutional Revolution, played a pivotal role in disseminating these ideas and shaping the intellectual landscape of the time. However, it is important to note that the revolution encompassed a broad spectrum of ideas and objectives, reflecting diverse intellectual trends, social backgrounds, and political demands.
While expatriates and their ideas contributed significantly to the conceptualization of constitutionalism in early 20th-century Iran, it was the interplay of various internal and external factors that ultimately defined this transformative era in Iran's history.
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The rise of Iranian nationalism
Iranian nationalism has been a predominant determinant of Iranian attitudes mainly since the 20th century. The modern Iranian national movement began in the late 19th century as a reaction to 19th-century European colonialism in the region. In the 1800s, through the Russo-Persian Wars, Iran was forced to cede swaths of its territory in the North and South Caucasus. These territories had been considered part of Iran for centuries. The initial objectives of Iranian nationalists were to end the feudalistic landholding system, governmental sloth and corruption, and the wholesale distribution of Iranian resources to foreigners.
The Persian Constitutional Revolution, also known as the Constitutional Revolution of Iran, took place between 1905 and 1911 during the Qajar era. The revolution led to the establishment of a parliament in Iran and has been called an "epoch-making episode in the modern history of Persia". The revolution was the first of its kind in the Islamic world and opened the way for the modern era in Iran and debate in a burgeoning press. The old order, which Naser al-Din Shah Qajar had struggled for so long to sustain, was finally replaced by new institutions.
The revolution was sparked by a dispute over sugar prices, which led to the first public protests. The governor of Tehran ordered that some sugar merchants be bastinadoed for refusing to lower their prices. The revolutionaries—mainly bazaar merchants, the ulama, and a small group of radical reformers—argued that Iran's oil industry was being sold to the British, while tax breaks on imports, exports, and manufactured textiles were destroying Iran's economy. They also believed that the Shah was selling assets to pay interest on the fortune in foreign debt he had accumulated.
The establishment of a constitutional regime in Persia was the chief objective of the revolution. The revolution encompassed a broad spectrum of ideas and objectives, reflecting diverse intellectual trends, social backgrounds, and political demands. The text of the Constitution itself did not have universal support. However, in spite of ideological ambiguities, the revolution remains significant because of its political achievements and its enduring social and cultural consequences. As a modern revolution, it was aimed at dislodging the old order by means of popular action and by advocacy of the tenets of liberalism, secularism, and nationalism.
Iranian nationalism in the 20th century was shaped by the desire to end foreign encroachment within the country, firstly by the British and then by America and others. This sentiment united Iranians under the banner of nationalism. However, it is important to note that nationalism in Iran cannot be simplistically viewed as exclusively anti-Western or anti-Imperialist. Instead, it is influenced by the inner dynamics of Iranian culture, including conflicts of class interests and the oppressive rule of autocrats, which contributed to the rise of revolutionary movements.
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The influence of the Russo-Japanese War
The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 was a conflict between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and the Korean Empire. The war was fought on land in Southern Manchuria and at sea in the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan.
Japan's decisive victory over Russia was the first time an Asian country had defeated a European power. This victory bolstered pride throughout Asia, particularly in countries like Iran, which had experienced Russian oppression and penetration. The Russo-Japanese War gave impetus to an Iranian opposition movement that had been growing since 1901. The war demonstrated that a country with a constitution had defeated a country without one, and so constitutions came to be seen as the "secret of strength" of Western governments.
The war's outcome had profound repercussions throughout Asia and Europe. In Russia, the defeat helped spark the 1905 Russian Revolution, which compelled Nicholas II to issue the October Manifesto, ostensibly transforming Russia from an unlimited autocracy into a constitutional monarchy. In Japan, the victory emboldened the militarists in the government, and the decades after the war saw them accrue almost unchecked power.
The Russo-Japanese War also introduced a number of characteristics that came to define 20th-century politics and warfare. The Industrial Revolution's innovations, such as rapid-firing artillery, machine guns, and more accurate rifles, were first tested on a mass scale during this conflict. The war demonstrated that modern warfare had undergone a considerable change, with technological advances forever altering the conditions of war.
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The impact of foreign intervention
At the turn of the 20th century, Iran was facing increasing colonial pressures from Russia and Great Britain, the two dominant powers in the "Great Game". The country's geopolitical importance to these empires, particularly its oil resources, made it a central focus of their colonial ambitions. This dynamic had a significant impact on Iran's constitutionalist movement and the country's broader trajectory in the early 20th century.
The Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905-1911), also known as the Constitutional Revolution of Iran, was a pivotal event in Iran's history. It aimed to establish a constitutional regime and limit the power of the Shah. The revolution ultimately led to the creation of a parliament and a constitution in 1906, marking a shift towards democratization. However, foreign intervention played a detrimental role in this process. Internal differences among revolutionaries, the reluctance of the Qajar Shahs to cede power, and colonial interests in maintaining control hampered Iran's transition to democracy.
Russia and Britain, the colonial powers vying for influence in Iran, posed significant challenges to the country's independence. In 1907, they agreed to divide Iran into spheres of influence, with Russia dominant in the north and Britain in the south. This division furthered their control over Iran's governance and economy. Additionally, Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar, who succeeded Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, abolished the constitution and bombarded the parliament in 1908 with Russian and British backing. This prompted constitutionalist forces to march on Tehran, forcing Mohammad Ali Shah's abdication and the re-establishment of the constitution in 1909.
The foreign intervention culminated in 1911 when Russia, with British support, issued an ultimatum to the Majlis (Iranian parliament) that threatened Iran's sovereignty. When the Majlis refused to comply, Russian troops entered northern Iran, killing leading constitutionalists and causing intellectuals and activists to flee. This intervention dealt a severe blow to the spirit of constitutionalism in Iran, as the second Majlis was dissolved under the threat of foreign occupation.
In the following decades, foreign powers continued to shape Iran's political and economic landscape. During World War I, British forces invaded Iran in 1914 to protect their oil interests, while Russian troops occupied the northern territories. The country's strategic location during World War II further increased foreign intervention, particularly from the British and the Soviet Union, in Iran's military development and training. Additionally, the British maintained control over Iran's oil revenue through the Anglo-Persian Oil Company.
The National Front Party, formed in 1949 by Mohammad Mossadeq, aimed to uphold the 1906 Constitution and nationalize the oil industry. Mossadeq became prime minister in 1951 and nationalized the oil industry, making him a nationalist hero. However, his actions threatened the economic interests of Western powers. In 1953, the British MI6 and the CIA toppled Mossadeq, reinforcing a pattern of foreign intervention thwarting democratic movements in Iran.
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Frequently asked questions
The main objective of the Constitutional Revolution in Iran, also known as the Persian Constitutional Revolution, was to establish a constitutional regime in Persia and limit the power of the Shah.
The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 and the Russian Revolution of 1905 gave impetus to an Iranian opposition movement that had been growing since 1901. A dispute over sugar prices finally sparked the first public protests of that revolution in 1905.
The Constitutional Revolution led to the establishment of a parliament in Iran and is considered an important episode in the country's modern history. It resulted in the creation of the Iranian Constitution, which included the 1906 constitution and the Supplementary Fundamental Law of 1907.
The Constitutional Revolution in Iran faced several challenges, including internal differences among the revolutionaries, reluctance by the Qajar Shahs to relinquish power, and colonial interference, particularly from Russia and Britain, who sought to maintain control over aspects of governance.
The Constitutional Revolution dealt a blow to Iran's independence. Despite establishing a parliament and retaining the constitution, foreign intervention remained a significant issue. In 1907, Russia and Great Britain carved Iran into spheres of influence, with Russia gaining supremacy in the north and Britain in the south.
