Simone Lawson
China has a long history of monarchical rule, with various dynasties and transitions occurring throughout the centuries. The country was once an absolute monarchy, with the Qing Dynasty attempting to transition to a constitutional monarchy in the early 20th century. This attempt, however, was short-lived, and the monarchy was abolished in 1912, bringing an end to the Qing Dynasty and the Chinese monarchy as a whole. Since then, there have been speculations and discussions about alternate histories or scenarios in which China could have become a constitutional monarchy, but it has never come to fruition. Today, China does not have a constitutional monarchy, and the idea remains a subject of exploration in hypothetical scenarios.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Form of Government | Absolute Monarchy, Constitutional Monarchy |
| Influence | Greek, British, Japanese |
| Ruling Dynasty | Qing, Yuan, Xia, Western Han, Kuomintang |
| Region | China Proper, Hainan, Macau, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Manchuria, Outer Manchuria, Sakhalin, Inner Mongolia, Outer Mongolia, Vietnam, Tibet, Xinjiang, Central Asia, Korean Peninsula, Afghanistan, Siberia |
| Current System | Communist |
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What You'll Learn
The Qing dynasty's transition to constitutional monarchy
The Qing dynasty was the last of the imperial dynasties of China, lasting from 1636 or 1644 to 1911 or 1912. The Qing dynasty was founded by the Manchus, a sedentary farming people who descended from the Jurchens, a Tungusic people who lived in the region now comprising the Chinese provinces of Jilin and Heilongjiang. The early form of the Manchu state was founded by Nurhaci, the chieftain of a minor Jurchen tribe. In 1644, the Chinese capital at Beijing was captured by the rebel leader Li Zicheng, and the reigning Ming dynasty called upon the Manchus for military assistance. The Manchus took advantage of this opportunity to seize the capital and establish their own dynasty in China.
By the early 20th century, the Qing court began to move towards a constitutional monarchy, with the establishment of government bodies like the Advisory Council and the holding of parliamentary elections to prepare for a constitutional government. This transition was marked by the issuance of the constitutional Nineteen Creeds on November 3, 1911, which limited the power of the emperor. However, this attempt at transitioning to a constitutional monarchy was not successful, as the monarchy was abolished just three months later.
The failure of the Qing dynasty's attempt to transition to a constitutional monarchy can be attributed to several factors. One factor was the ethnic difference between the ruling Manchus and the majority Han Chinese population. The Qing dynasty attempted to hold on to power by making concessions and introducing reforms to please the revolutionaries. However, the 1908 proposal for a constitutional monarchy was not acceptable to the revolutionaries, the Han Chinese, or even the Qing elite.
Additionally, the Qing dynasty was facing a number of challenges to its rule in the 19th century, including foreign incursions into Chinese territory and losses in the Opium Wars against Western powers led by Great Britain, as well as the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). These events weakened Qing rule and led to the loss of territory, further contributing to the instability and eventual collapse of the dynasty.
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The Chinese monarchy's control over China and beyond
China does not currently have a constitutional monarchy. However, the country transitioned to a constitutional monarchy for a brief period in 1911, before the monarchy was abolished in 1912.
The Chinese monarchy, which took the form of absolute monarchy for most of its existence, exercised control over China proper, including Hainan, Macau, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Manchuria, Sakhalin, Mongolia, Vietnam, Tibet, Xinjiang, and parts of Central Asia, the Korean Peninsula, Afghanistan, and Siberia. The Chinese monarchy reached its largest territorial extent under either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty.
The monarchy's control beyond China proper was maintained through the Chinese tributary system, which lasted from the Western Han dynasty until the 19th century AD when the Sinocentric order collapsed. The tributary system allowed the Chinese monarchy to exert hegemony over other states.
During the early 20th century, the Qing dynasty attempted to hold on to power by introducing a constitutional system, resulting in the Nineteen Creeds, which limited the power of the emperor. This marked the official transition to a constitutional monarchy in 1911. However, this attempt to establish a constitutional monarchy was not democratically formulated and only lasted for three months before the monarchy was abolished.
There were also several proposals and attempts to revive the Chinese monarchy during the Xinhai Revolution, including the potential candidacy of Kong Lingyi, a descendant of Confucius, as the emperor. However, these attempts ultimately failed, and the Republic of China, proclaimed in 1912, is considered the legitimate successor to the Qing dynasty and the Chinese monarchy.
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Greek influence on China
China has never been a constitutional monarchy. While there were attempts to transition to a constitutional monarchy during the Qing dynasty, these were ultimately unsuccessful. In 1911, the Wuchang Uprising marked the start of the Xinhai Revolution, which led to the end of the Chinese monarchy and the founding of the Republic of China in 1912.
Now, onto the topic of Greek influence on China. Modern diplomatic relations between the two countries were established in 1972. Since then, China and Greece have enjoyed a strong and steadily growing relationship. Greece's Port of Piraeus, under Chinese management since 2009 and with majority Chinese ownership since 2016, is strategically important for China's transactions with Europe. In recent years, China has pursued a charm offensive in Greece, with state-owned companies seeking to expand their footprint in the country. China's strategic objectives in Greece include leveraging Greece's position in the Belt and Road Initiative, gaining the support of Greek political, business, and academic leaders, and exerting influence over the EU through "friendly" member states.
Historically, there have been some limited interactions between China and the Byzantine Greeks. Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan dynasty, maintained correspondence with the Byzantine Greeks and hosted some of them at his court in modern-day Beijing. Additionally, a diplomatic mission from the Byzantine ruler Michael VII Doukas arrived in China during the reign of Emperor Shenzong of the Song dynasty in 1081.
In terms of cultural influence, it is worth noting that some have speculated that for China to become a constitutional monarchy, it would have required prolonged contact and influence from Greek culture. This influence could have been facilitated by established trade relationships or Alexander the Great's invasion of Northern India, reaching modern-day China and leaving a lasting Greek cultural impact.
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The Chinese tributary system
The tributary system was a ritualised process that put China in a central position. Foreign powers sent emissaries to China, who would perform a ritual called the kowtow, involving complete prostration and knocking of the head on the ground, to show reverence to the Chinese emperor. The emissaries would bring gifts that were often products native to their lands, and in return, the Chinese emperor would give them items that signified power and wealth, such as cloth, silk, and gold. The tributary states would then engage in their desired business, such as trade.
Political actors within the tributary system were largely autonomous and independent. While some scholars argue that the tributary system is a model for understanding international relations in East Asia today, others disagree, stating that the concept is misleading about relations in both early modern times and today. The term "tribute system" is a Western invention, and there was no equivalent term in the Chinese lexicon to describe such a system.
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Attempts to revive the Chinese monarchy
China was a monarchy from prehistoric times until 1912, when the 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing government and ended close to four millennia of monarchy. The revolution was the culmination of a decade of agitation, revolts, and uprisings.
Despite the end of monarchy in China, there were several attempts to revive it. Firstly, the Qing dynasty, which had been overthrown in 1912, attempted to hold on to power by introducing a constitutional system and other reforms to appease the revolutionaries. However, these attempts failed as the proposals were not acceptable to the revolutionaries, the Han people, or the Qing elite.
Secondly, during the Xinhai Revolution, there were proposals to replace the Manchu-led Qing dynasty with a new dynasty of Han ethnicity. Kong Lingyi, a descendant of Confucius, was considered a potential candidate for Chinese emperorship. Gentry in Anhui and Hebei also supported the restoration of the Ming dynasty under Zhu Yuxun, the Marquis of Extended Grace.
Thirdly, in 1917, the Qing loyalist Zhang Xun seized Beijing and briefly reinstalled Puyi, the last emperor of the Qing dynasty, to the throne. This attempt, known as the Manchu Restoration, lasted less than two weeks and was quickly reversed by Republican troops.
Finally, in the hypothetical scenario where Japan had won World War II, it is speculated that they could have installed their constitution and their man Puyi as a constitutional emperor of China.
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Frequently asked questions
No, China is not a constitutional monarchy. The monarchy of China took the form of absolute monarchy during most of its existence, even though the actual power of the ruler varied depending on his/her ability to consolidate rule and other factors. On 3 November 1911, the Qing dynasty issued the constitutional Nineteen Creeds which limited the power of the emperor, marking the official transition to a constitutional monarchy. However, after only 3 months, the monarchy was abolished.
No, China has never been a constitutional monarchy. However, there were attempts to transition to a constitutional monarchy. The Qing dynasty attempted to hold on to power by introducing a constitutional system and other reforms to please the revolutionaries.
Yes, China was a monarchy for most of its existence. The monarchy was abolished in 1912, marking the end of the Qing dynasty and the Chinese monarchy altogether.
