Jonah Patel
The Portuguese Empire was a colonial empire that existed between 1415 and 1999, achieving a global scale and controlling vast portions of the Americas, Africa, and various islands in Asia and Oceania. The power and influence of the Kingdom of Portugal expanded across the globe, with the empire being one of the most powerful in the early modern period. The Portuguese established several fortified trading settlements along the southern coast of modern-day Ghana, such as Elmina in 1482, and colonised the islands of São Tomé and Príncipe off the southern coast of West Africa in 1486. They also had larger territorial colonies like Brazil, Angola, and Mozambique. The Portuguese established a colonial model with a local military force led by a captain, and a factor responsible for royal trade and extracting customs duties. This model was applied in most colonies, including Angola, which employed the Imbangala as mercenaries in the 17th century. The Portuguese Empire's existence and impact raise questions about its diplomacy with local colonies, specifically regarding the establishment and maintenance of its global presence.
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What You'll Learn
Portuguese diplomacy with Britain
The Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of England, and later the modern Portuguese Republic and the United Kingdom, have shared a long history of diplomatic relations. The two nations have never waged war against each other and have been bound by a treaty of mutual friendship for over six centuries.
The Treaty of Windsor, signed in 1373 or 1386, sealed the alliance between the two kingdoms, which had been in place since 1294. The marriage of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, son of King Edward III of England, and Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of King John I of Portugal, further strengthened the alliance in 1387. This union brought the Anglo-Norman tradition of aristocratic upbringing to the Portuguese court and marked the beginning of Portugal's golden age.
In the 16th century, the Portuguese Empire, which had established a vast network of coastal trading centres and territorial colonies, came under threat from rival European powers such as the Dutch Republic, England, and France. During this time, England and Portugal continued their alliance, with England aiding the deposed Portuguese royal house during the Anglo-Spanish War (1585-1604).
The alliance endured through the centuries, with both nations supporting each other during the Napoleonic Wars and the World Wars. In World War I, Portugal was an official ally, and in World War II, although officially neutral, Portugal provided aid and granted naval bases to Britain.
In recent times, the two nations have continued to foster their diplomatic and commercial relations. They are members of NATO and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and have engaged in multiple state visits and town twinning initiatives. In June 2022, the Prime Ministers of both countries signed the UK-Portugal Joint Declaration on Bilateral Cooperation, reaffirming their longstanding alliance.
In summary, Portugal and Britain have a long history of diplomacy, characterised by mutual support, trade, and strategic alliances, making their relationship one of the longest-running and most stable in the world.
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Portuguese colonies as bargaining chips
The Portuguese Empire was a colonial empire that existed between 1415 and 1999. It was one of the most powerful empires of the early modern period, covering 5.5 million square kilometres at its greatest extent in 1820. The Kingdom of Portugal, and later the Republic of Portugal, established and governed the empire, making it the longest-lived colonial empire in European history.
The Portuguese Empire's existence was driven by several factors, including the search for access to the gold and salt trade of West Africa, the eastern spice trade, new lands for agriculture, riches, glory for colonial adventurers, and the ambitions of missionary work. The empire included larger territorial colonies like Brazil, Angola, and Mozambique, as well as a string of coastal trading centres with defensive fortifications. White Europeans dominated trade, politics, and society, but there was also racial mixing, and people of mixed ancestry rose to positions of power in the colonies.
The British Ultimatum of 1890 enfeebled the ruling Bragança dynasty and left resentment among Portuguese nationalists. This led to a rapprochement to salvage the relationship between Portugal and Britain, which was still seen as mutually advantageous. Despite this, Britain was considered a “duplicitous” ally, and there were concerns about losing colonial assets to Britain and other European rivals.
Portuguese colonies were indeed considered bargaining chips by the British, who saw them as a way to appease some of their European rivals. This is evident in the conversations British diplomats had with Berlin after the advent of the Republic in Portugal, which built upon a previous agreement from 1890. Additionally, during World War I, Portugal's participation was driven by the desire of its elites to improve the country's international standing, and the preservation of its colonial empire was a significant concern. However, the idea that dispatching an expeditionary force to Flanders in 1916 influenced the Allies' decision to preserve Portugal's imperial sovereignty in Africa remains speculative.
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Portuguese public opinion on imperialism
The Portuguese Empire was a colonial empire that existed between 1415 and 1999. It was one of the most powerful empires of the early modern period, covering 5.5 million square kilometres at its greatest extent in 1820, making it one of the largest empires in history. The empire included vast portions of the Americas, Africa, and various islands in Asia and Oceania. The 16th century is considered the period that Portugal is most proud of, an era known as "the age of discoveries" that saw the country's ascension as a global power. This period is considered a cornerstone of Portuguese national identity and is commemorated through various means, including applications for UNESCO heritage status.
However, there has been little acknowledgment of Portugal's role in the transatlantic slave trade until recently. The racist ideology that underpinned Portuguese colonialism was reflected in events such as the 1940 World Exhibition in Lisbon, which promoted a sense of national identity that aligned with dictator António de Oliveira Salazar's imperial ambitions. Salazar, who ruled from 1933 to 1970, was determined to maintain the integrity of the colonial empire and resisted calls for independence from the colonies. For example, following India's independence from Britain in 1947, Salazar rebuffed a request from Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to return Portuguese enclaves in India, considering them integral parts of Portugal.
The outbreak of violence in Angola in 1961 marked the beginning of the end of Portugal's empire in Africa. Despite Salazar's insistence on maintaining the empire, unrest spread to other colonies, such as Guinea and Mozambique. Eventually, Portugal lost its hold on its African colonies, and by the 1970s, its empire was limited to forts and plantations along the African coastline, Portuguese Timor, and enclaves in India and China.
In summary, Portuguese public opinion on imperialism has been influenced by the commemoration of the country's age of discoveries and the promotion of a national identity linked to its global power and influence during that period. At the same time, there has been a lack of acknowledgment of the negative aspects of colonialism, such as the country's role in the slave trade and the racist ideology that underpinned its colonial rule.
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The Iberian Union
During this time, the two kingdoms shared a monarch, but the realms continued to have separate administrations, with each kingdom maintaining its independent government, institutions, and legal traditions. The union was advantageous in that it opened up a worldwide span of control, with Portugal dominating the African and Asian coasts surrounding the Indian Ocean, and Spain controlling the Pacific Ocean and both sides of Central and South America, while both shared the Atlantic Ocean space.
However, the union also had its drawbacks for Portugal. As the King of Spain was now also the King of Portugal, Portuguese colonies became the target of attacks by rival European powers hostile to Spain, such as the Dutch Republic, England, and France. This led to a decline in Portugal's monopoly on the spice trade, as these countries established their own trading posts in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Additionally, the diversion of wealth by the Habsburg monarchy to support the Catholic side of the Thirty Years' War created strains within the union, and Portugal found itself economically dependent on its colonies.
The end of the Iberian Union came with the Portuguese Restoration War, during which the House of Braganza was established as Portugal's new ruling dynasty, with João IV (or John IV) as king.
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The loss of Portuguese colonies
The Portuguese Empire was a colonial empire that existed between 1415 and 1999. It was one of the most powerful empires of the early modern period, covering 5.5 million square kilometres at its greatest extent in 1820, making it among the largest empires in history.
The second era of the empire (1663-1825) saw Brazil become its most valuable colony. However, as part of the wave of independence movements in the Americas during the early 19th century, Brazil broke away from Portugal in 1822. This marked the third era of the empire, with colonial possessions now reduced to forts and plantations along the African coastline, as well as enclaves in India (Portuguese India) and China (Portuguese Macau).
The Portuguese dictatorship under António Salazar (in office from 1932 to 1968) attempted to cling to its remaining colonies, renaming them "overseas provinces" while retaining forced labour. However, the tide turned in the 1960s, with the Dahomey annexing the Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá in 1961, and India annexing Goa, Daman, and Diu in the same year. The Portuguese Colonial War, also known as the War of Liberation in the former colonies, lasted from 1961 to 1974 and ended with the overthrow of the Estado Novo regime and the hasty decolonisation of Portuguese Africa. The independence of Portuguese territories in Africa was supported by most Portuguese citizens, who were weary of the long war and isolation from the world community.
The Portuguese Empire officially ended in 1999 with the transfer of sovereignty over Macau to China, marking the end of the longest-lived colonial empire in European history.
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Frequently asked questions
In 2001, Portugal decriminalised the personal possession and use of all drugs in small amounts, including heroin, cocaine, and marijuana. This means that possession and use are no longer punishable by imprisonment and do not result in a criminal record. However, drugs are still confiscated, and possession may result in administrative penalties such as fines or community service.
In the 1970s and 1980s, drug use and abuse expanded in Portugal, gradually becoming a major societal problem. In the 1990s, heroin use skyrocketed, resulting in high levels of addiction and the spread of the AIDS epidemic. By the late 1990s, Portugal had the highest rate of HIV among injecting drug users in the European Union, with an estimated 1% of the population addicted to heroin. This public health crisis led to a shift in approach, treating drug use as a health issue rather than a criminal one.
Portugal's drug policy focuses on harm reduction, public health, and treatment. This includes increasing access to treatment facilities and substitution treatment for drug addicts, establishing commissions to persuade addicts to seek treatment, and reorganising drug control units into a comprehensive unit. The policy also emphasises education and information, raising awareness about the risks of drug use and how to prevent the spread of diseases like HIV.
Portugal's drug policy has had mixed results. On the one hand, drug deaths dropped dramatically in the first five years after the reforms, and the number of people receiving treatment for drug addiction increased. Portugal's model has also influenced drug policy in other countries, such as Oregon and Norway. However, there has been a recent rise in opposition to the policy as addiction rates have multiplied, and some argue that it has led to a normalisation of drug use and a spike in crime. There are also concerns about a lack of funding for drug prevention and treatment programs.
No, Portugal has decriminalised drug use and possession in small amounts, but it has not legalised drugs. Drug trafficking and larger-scale possession are still illegal and punishable by law.
