Isabella Carter
Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II of Austria was not especially aggressive in foreign affairs, but his eagerness to enforce Austrian claims on Bavaria and his anti-Prussian stance led to diplomatic tensions and military conflict. Joseph's attempts to acquire Bavaria, exchange the Austrian Netherlands for it, and enforce Austrian rule in the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary caused resistance and unrest, with open revolts in some cases. He was involved in the First Partition of Poland and a war with the Ottoman Empire due to a pact with Russia, which ended in painful losses for Austria. While he avoided war with Prussia through diplomacy, he assembled an army in Bohemia, ready to invade if the opportunity arose. Joseph's conduct of foreign policy and his peculiar reforms in the 1780s led to increasing dissatisfaction and resistance, impacting his ability to govern effectively.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Avoided War | Yes, avoided war with Prussia by not engaging in battle when Frederick's troops marched into Bohemia |
| Used Diplomacy | Yes, used diplomacy to negotiate with Catherine the Great of Russia, forming a pact to help each other in case of war |
| Foreign Policy | Had some success in foreign policy as co-regent with his mother, meeting with King Frederick the Great of Prussia to plan the partition of Poland |
| Military Action | Raised an army of 250,000 men when Catherine declared war on Turkey, but returned to Vienna without victory due to illness and domestic crises |
| Domestic Policy | Faced resistance to reforms, particularly in the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary, where his attempts to impose German as the official language were opposed |
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What You'll Learn
Joseph II's avoidance of war with Prussia
Joseph II, the Holy Roman Emperor, was not particularly aggressive in foreign affairs. However, he did have a complex relationship with Prussia, which he tried to manage through diplomacy, with varying degrees of success.
In 1769, Joseph met with King Frederick the Great of Prussia privately at Neisse, and again at Mährisch-Neustadt in 1770. The two rulers initially got along well, and they planned the partition of Poland together, with each ruler taking a part of the country. On the second occasion, Joseph was accompanied by Prince Kaunitz, whose conversation with Frederick marked the starting point of the First Partition of Poland.
In 1775, when Frederick fell severely ill, Joseph assembled an army in Bohemia, intending to advance into Prussia and demand Silesia, a territory previously conquered from Maria Theresa in the War of the Austrian Succession. However, Frederick recovered, and this incident created a sense of wariness and mistrust between the two rulers.
In 1784, Joseph attempted to exchange the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria, but he left Prussia out of his calculations. This prompted Frederick to send his troops into Bohemia, creating a tense situation that threatened war. However, the threat of war ended without any battle being fought, as Frederick formed the Fürstenbund (Princes' League) against Joseph in 1785, preventing the exchange.
Despite these challenges, Joseph did find some diplomatic success with Prussia. For example, he met with Frederick to plan the partition of Poland, and he was able to avoid an all-out war during the dispute over Bavaria. Additionally, Joseph's commitment to secularizing, liberalizing, and modernizing reforms aligned with the Enlightenment ideals of the time, which also influenced Frederick's policies in Prussia.
Overall, while Joseph II's relationship with Prussia was complex and marked by tensions, he managed to avoid a direct war with Prussia through a combination of diplomacy, strategic alliances, and a degree of flexibility in his negotiations.
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Diplomacy in the First Partition of Poland
The First Partition of Poland was decided on August 5, 1772, and ratified on September 22, 1772, after the Bar Confederation lost the war with Russia. It was the first of three partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place towards the end of the 18th century, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland and Lithuania for 123 years. The partitioning powers were the Habsburg monarchy, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Russian Empire.
In the First Partition, Poland lost about a third of its population of 14 million before the partitions. Russia received Polish territory east of the line formed by the Dvina and Dnieper rivers. Prussia gained the economically valuable province of Royal Prussia, excluding the cities of Gdańsk (Danzig) and Toruń, and also gained the northern portion of the region of Great Poland (Wielkopolska). Austria acquired the regions of Little Poland (Małopolska) south of the Vistula River, western Podolia, and the area that subsequently became known as Galicia.
The First Partition occurred after Russia became involved in a war against the Ottoman Turks (1768) and won impressive victories, particularly in the Danubian principalities, alarming Austria, which threatened to enter the war against Russia. The Russian-supported Polish king, Stanisław August Poniatowski, was seen as weak and too independent-minded, and Russia decided that the usefulness of Poland as a protectorate had diminished. The three powers officially justified their actions as compensation for dealing with a troublesome neighbour and restoring order to Polish anarchy.
In the lead-up to the First Partition, the Polish court was characterised by a tendency to seek the clandestine aid of foreign powers. In 1769, Austria annexed 13 Polish-held towns in the Hungarian Szepes region in violation of the Treaty of Lubowla. Catherine II of Russia then suggested to Prussia that it claim some land held by Poland. Frederick of Prussia attempted to encourage Russia to direct its expansion towards Poland instead of the Ottomans. The Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton Graf Kaunitz made a counter-proposal for Prussia to take lands held by Poland in return for relinquishing Glatz and parts of Silesia to Austria, but his plan was rejected. Eventually, the three powers agreed on the First Partition of Poland.
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The War of the Bavarian Succession
Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, Archduke of Austria, and co-ruler with his mother, Empress Maria Theresa, had long coveted Bavaria. He believed that the War of the Austrian Succession had demonstrated the need for the House of Habsburg-Lorraine to expand its influence in German-speaking parts of the Holy Roman Empire. Joseph sought to strengthen his family's influence and ensure the uncontested succession of their territories. To this end, he married Max Joseph's sister, Maria Josepha, in 1765, hoping that his offspring could claim the Bavarian electorate.
After Max Joseph's death, Joseph negotiated a secret agreement with Charles Theodore. In this agreement, Charles Theodore ceded Lower Bavaria to Austria in exchange for an uncontested succession to the remainder of the electorate. However, this agreement ignored the interests of Charles Theodore's heir presumptive, Charles II August, and other parties had their own interests in the disposition of Bavaria. Elector Frederick August III of Saxony, for instance, wanted to preserve the territorial integrity of Bavaria for his brother-in-law, Charles August, and sought the support of Prussia to challenge the Habsburgs. France also became involved to maintain the balance of power.
Faced with the threat of intervention by Empress Catherine the Great of Russia, who supported Prussia and promised to send 50,000 troops, Joseph was forced to reconsider. With Catherine's assistance, Joseph and Frederick negotiated the Treaty of Teschen, signed on May 13, 1779, resolving the Bavarian succession issue.
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Joseph's foreign policy in the 1780s
Joseph II of Austria's foreign policy in the 1780s was characterised by his attempts to maintain peace and promote diplomacy, even though he faced significant challenges and criticism. Here is an overview of his key policies and actions during this period:
Early Years and Influences: Joseph II became emperor in 1765 after his father's death, but his mother, Maria Theresa, held sovereign control and influenced his early policies. Joseph's mother favoured religious tolerance, which he supported, but he also sought greater independence in decision-making. Joseph's early education was influenced by Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire and Rousseau, shaping his reformist tendencies.
Alliances and Treaties: Joseph's foreign policy in the 1780s was marked by his desire to counter Prussia's influence. He followed the advice of his chancellor, Kaunitz, who advocated for an alliance with Russia against Prussia. In 1781, Joseph and Kaunitz negotiated a pact with Catherine the Great of Russia, promising mutual aid in potential wars with Prussia and the Ottoman Empire. This alliance proved challenging as Catherine's aggressive actions towards the Ottoman Empire led to a declaration of war by the Sultan in 1787, drawing Joseph into a conflict he had hoped to avoid.
The Partition of Poland: Joseph played a role in the First Partition of Poland, meeting with King Frederick the Great of Prussia to plan the division of Polish territory between neighbouring powers, including Austria. This action was driven by a desire to expand Austrian influence and territory.
Conflict with Prussia: Despite his efforts to avoid war, Joseph's policies occasionally led to tensions with other powers, particularly Prussia. In the 1780s, Joseph proposed exchanging the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria, which angered Frederick the Great. Frederick marched troops into Bohemia, and the threat of war loomed until 1785, when Frederick formed the Fürstenbund (Princes' League) against Joseph, forcing him to abandon the exchange.
War with the Ottoman Empire: Due to his treaty obligations with Russia, Joseph reluctantly joined the war against the Ottoman Empire in 1787. The initial stages of the war were challenging for the Austrian forces, and Joseph's health issues prevented him from effectively leading his army. However, in 1789, the Austrians achieved a significant victory by capturing the fortress of Belgrade, and a joint Austro-Russian offensive drove the Turks back to the Danube.
Domestic and Foreign Policy Challenges: While Joseph's foreign policy successes were mixed, he also faced significant challenges due to his domestic policies. His attempts to impose German as the official language in Hungary and his absolutist reforms in the Austrian Netherlands sparked resistance and open revolts, complicating his foreign policy goals. By the late 1780s, Joseph faced increasing dissatisfaction, and his health issues further hindered his ability to pursue his agenda effectively.
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Austria's war with the Ottoman Empire
Austria and the Ottoman Empire were engaged in numerous wars from the 16th century to the 18th century. The Ottoman conquests in Europe posed a serious threat to European powers, attracting support from the West for the Austrians. The Crusade of Nicopolis in 1396 and the Crusade of Varna from 1443 to 1444 were attempts by Europe to halt the Turkic advance into Central Europe and the Balkans.
The Ottoman-Habsburg wars began in 1521, with the Austrians successfully defending Vienna against the Ottomans in 1532 and 1683. The second siege of Vienna in 1683, in particular, is depicted as a decisive Austrian victory that marked the decline of the Ottoman Empire. The Habsburgs also assembled a large coalition of European powers known as the Holy League to fight the Ottomans and regain control over Hungary.
The Austro-Turkish War, also known as the Habsburg-Ottoman War, took place from 1788 to 1791. This conflict was fought between the Habsburg monarchy and the Ottoman Empire and was concurrent with the Russo-Turkish War. The Austrian Emperor Joseph II had formed an alliance with Russia in 1781, which obliged him to join the war against the Ottoman Empire. Despite careful preparations, Joseph's large army of 250,000 men was poorly organized, and he himself was unwell. The Austrians entered the war in February 1788, but their best chance for an easy victory had passed. They faced supply shortages and disease, and as Serbian refugees fled across the Danube, logistical problems arose. In July, the Ottomans crossed the Danube, breaking into the Austrian Banat. Despite these setbacks, the Austrians managed to capture Belgrade in 1789 and liberate much of central Serbia, along with several forts in the Pounje region of Ottoman Bosnia. However, many of these gains were lost in the later stages of the war, which ended with minor territorial changes in favour of the Habsburgs.
The Austro-Turkish War had negative consequences for Austria, with a detrimental impact on its economy and progress towards a modern civil society. It also contributed to the increasing dissatisfaction with Joseph II's rule, along with resistance to his domestic policies and foreign policy. Ultimately, it was the resistance in Hungary that broke Joseph's spirit.
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Frequently asked questions
Joseph II was not particularly aggressive in foreign affairs, but he did engage in several wars during his reign. He was involved in the War of the Bavarian Succession of 1778-1779, the First Partition of Poland, and a war with the Ottoman Empire in 1787. He also raised an army of 250,000 men when Catherine II of Russia declared war on Turkey.
Joseph II did employ diplomacy during his reign. He met with King Frederick II of Prussia to plan the partition of Poland, and he negotiated with Catherine the Great of Russia to form a pact against Prussia. He also attempted to enforce Austria's claim on Bavaria through diplomatic means.
Joseph II's attempts to avoid war were not always successful. While he was able to negotiate and form alliances, he was drawn into conflicts due to his diplomatic alliances and the actions of other powers. For example, his treaty obligations with Russia led him into a war with the Ottoman Empire despite his lack of enthusiasm for the conflict.
