Simone Lawson
Sanctions are a response to foreign crises that are increasingly used by governments to achieve foreign policy goals. They are often viewed as an alternative to military force, with the aim of solving a conflict without the mass suffering and sacrifice required by war. Sanctions can be diplomatic, economic, or military in nature. Diplomatic sanctions are political measures taken to express disapproval or displeasure at a certain action through diplomatic and political means, rather than economic or military relations. Economic sanctions can range from trade barriers, tariffs, and restrictions on financial transactions to a full naval blockade of the target's ports in an effort to block imported goods. Military sanctions can include targeted military strikes or an arms embargo. This raises the question: are sanctions a form of diplomacy, or warfare by other means?
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Purpose | To isolate and delegitimise regimes |
| Type | Diplomatic, economic, military, trade, sports, environmental |
| Effectiveness | 5-30% success rate; may have unintended consequences |
| Humanitarian impact | Targeted at groups/individuals; humanitarian relief is exempt from sanctions |
| Number of ongoing regimes | 14 |
| Examples | US sanctions on Russia, China; Europe sanctions on Russia; UN sanctions on Iraq |
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What You'll Learn
Sanctions as a form of diplomacy
Sanctions are a form of intervention and are often viewed as an alternative to military force. They are used to punish an offending party economically, socially, or politically, with the aim of solving a conflict without the mass suffering and sacrifice required by war. Policymakers often consider sanctions as a response to foreign crises where national interests are less than vital or where military action is not feasible.
Diplomatic sanctions are political measures taken to express disapproval or displeasure at a certain action through diplomatic and political means, rather than economic or military relations. Measures include limitations or cancellations of high-level government visits, or expelling or withdrawing diplomatic missions or staff. Diplomatic sanctions are seen as a low-cost means of isolating and delegitimizing regimes. However, critics argue that engagement with these regimes is akin to appeasement and signals acceptance of behaviour that ought to be condemned. Furthermore, the costs of maintaining diplomatic sanctions may be substantial and could even undermine the effectiveness of economic sanctions.
Economic sanctions can range from trade barriers, tariffs, and restrictions on financial transactions to a full naval blockade of the target's ports to block imported goods. The objective is to impose significant costs on the target country to coerce a policy change or attain a specific action from the target government. However, the effectiveness of economic sanctions has been questioned due to their harsh impacts on the general population. Since 9/11, there has been a shift towards targeted or "smart" sanctions, aiming to minimize the suffering of innocent civilians.
Military sanctions can include targeted military strikes to degrade a nation's capabilities, or less aggressive forms such as arms embargoes. Sport sanctions are also a form of psychological warfare, intended to crush the morale of the general population of the target country.
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Sanctions as an alternative to military force
Sanctions are penalties imposed by countries or groups of countries to intentionally inflict pain and force change. They are often viewed as a nonviolent alternative to military force, but they can also be compared to a military siege in that they aim to cut off essential supplies to force political leaders to comply with demands. Sanctions can be applied to individuals, such as foreign officials accused of corruption, organisations, sectors, or entire nations.
The use of sanctions as a tool of diplomacy has a long history. In 1918, at the height of World War I, President Woodrow Wilson described economic sanctions as a "peaceful, silent deadly remedy, and there will be no need for force". Following World War II, the use of sanctions by the US solidified, particularly during the Korean War when President Truman formalised sanctions policy under the US Department of the Treasury. During the Gulf War in 1991, sanctions on Iraq led to significant shortages of medical supplies and daily necessities for ordinary people. In the post-9/11 context, the use of sanctions by US administrations grew significantly, from five countries at the beginning of 2001 to 21 countries by 2021.
Sanctions can be used to deter or compel. Deterrence is generally considered to be easier to achieve than compellence because leaders do not face the same high political costs that come with reversing course. Sanctions can deter in two ways: directly, by threatening the target state with sanctions, or indirectly, by making an example of the economic damage sustained by sanctioned states. An example of indirect deterrence is the sanctions imposed on Haiti in 1991 and Niger in 1996 after military coups in those states.
Sanctions can also be used to compel a change in behaviour, as seen in the case of Iraq. Economic sanctions on Iraq caused significant economic damage, slowing the rebuilding of the Iraqi military by making it difficult to purchase spare parts and replace ageing equipment. This, in turn, compelled Iraq to comply with UN efforts to prevent it from acquiring weapons of mass destruction and to recognise Kuwait.
In addition to the US, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) also imposes sanctions. As of December 2022, the UNSC had instituted travel bans and asset freezes to sanction over 1000 individuals and entities connected to threats to international peace and security in 15 countries.
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Effectiveness of sanctions
Sanctions are a tool of foreign policy that can be used to achieve political goals and have socioeconomic, political, and psychological effects. They are a form of diplomacy that can be used to isolate and delegitimize regimes, but their effectiveness is uncertain and contested.
The impact and effectiveness of sanctions are not the same thing. While sanctions may cause material damage, this does not necessarily lead to the desired political gains. For example, sanctions against Russia following the invasion of Ukraine have had limited success in changing the country's behavior, despite their unprecedented nature and the expectation that they would work.
There are several factors that influence the effectiveness of sanctions. Sanctions are more likely to be effective when the goal is relatively modest, the target country is smaller, economically weak, and politically unstable, the countries have had friendly relations and conducted substantial trade before the sanctions, and the sanctions are imposed quickly and decisively. Unilateral sanctions are generally less successful, especially in an increasingly integrated international economy, and even more so when imposed by a smaller economy. Since 1970, unilateral US sanctions have achieved foreign policy goals in only 13% of cases.
Additionally, sanctions can have unintended consequences and costs for the imposing country, such as undermining the effectiveness of economic sanctions and resulting in economic and job losses. Furthermore, sanctions may not always achieve their intended goals, as seen in the cases of Iraq and the former Yugoslavia, where even the use of military force was eventually required to achieve American goals.
In conclusion, while sanctions can be a tool of diplomacy, their effectiveness is complex and uncertain. A comprehensive evaluation of their impact should consider various factors, including the magnitude of measures, the coordination among political actors, and the potential costs and unintended consequences.
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Negative consequences of sanctions
Sanctions are a lesser form of coercive measure that can be used as a tool of diplomacy to express official displeasure with a certain behaviour or to reinforce a commitment to a behavioural norm. They can be diplomatic, economic, or military. For example, sanctions have been adopted by the US and Europe against Russia following the annexation of Crimea during the war in Ukraine.
However, sanctions can have negative consequences, and there are several drawbacks to their use. Firstly, sanctions often fail to achieve their intended purpose of changing the behaviour of the target country. For instance, despite sanctions, the Iranian regime continues to support terrorism and pursue its nuclear weapons program, and China persists in exporting sensitive technologies and violating human rights.
Secondly, sanctions can have unintended humanitarian impacts on the civilian population of the target country. While humanitarian relief is supposed to be exempted from sanctions, the negative consequences can be far-reaching and long-lasting. Studies have shown that sanctions can lead to a significant decrease in GDP per capita in the target country, with effects lasting for years even after the sanctions are removed. For example, the economic sanctions imposed on Russia following the annexation of Crimea in 2014 are estimated to have caused an immediate loss of 1.97% in GDP, and Russian studies forecast even more significant losses in the medium term.
Thirdly, sanctions can also have negative repercussions for the imposing country. For the United States, for instance, the use of sanctions may entail substantial costs and may even undermine the effectiveness of its own economic sanctions. Sanctions can hurt American economic interests without achieving the desired behavioural change in the target country, and the impact on the US can be difficult to predict.
Lastly, sanctions are a blunt instrument that may not always be targeted with precision. Even when sanctions have become "smarter" by targeting specific groups or individuals within a country, they can still fail to reach or affect those who hold power in a meaningful way.
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Sanctions as a tool for isolating regimes
Sanctions are a foreign policy tool used by states to apply pressure on other states, groups, or individuals. They can take various forms, including diplomatic, economic, and military sanctions. Diplomatic sanctions, in particular, are often seen as a low-cost means of isolating and delegitimizing regimes. By withdrawing diplomatic recognition or reducing diplomatic ties, a state can express disapproval of another state's actions and attempt to curtail its influence on the international stage.
For example, the United States has employed diplomatic sanctions as a foreign policy tool in various instances. Critics of diplomatic engagement with certain regimes argue that it is equivalent to appeasement and implies acceptance of behaviours that should be condemned. In such cases, diplomatic sanctions are viewed as a way to isolate and delegitimize these regimes without resorting to more costly or confrontational measures.
However, the effectiveness of diplomatic sanctions as a tool for isolating regimes is debated. Some argue that maintaining diplomatic sanctions can entail significant costs for the imposing state and may even undermine the effectiveness of economic sanctions. Additionally, there are concerns about the humanitarian impact of sanctions on civilian populations, which has prompted efforts to exempt humanitarian relief from sanctions regimes.
To make sanctions more effective and humane, research is needed to understand their precise impact on civilians and targeted regimes. Sanctions have evolved to become more targeted, focusing on prominent members of state apparatuses and non-state actors, such as designated terrorist groups. Sanctions committees and monitoring groups also support the administration of sanctions regimes, ensuring they are part of a comprehensive strategy for maintaining international peace and security.
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Frequently asked questions
Sanctions are political measures taken to express disapproval or displeasure at a certain action through diplomatic, economic, or military means. Diplomatic sanctions include limitations or cancellations of high-level government visits or the withdrawal of diplomatic missions or staff. Economic sanctions can range from trade barriers, tariffs, and restrictions on financial transactions to a full naval blockade of the target's ports in an effort to block imported goods. Military sanctions can include targeted military strikes or an arms embargo.
Sanctions are often viewed as an alternative to military force and a form of diplomacy. They are a lower-cost, lower-risk course of action that can be used to respond to foreign crises. However, critics argue that sanctions are a form of "moral posturing" with little impact and can have unintended consequences, such as provoking the targeted country or causing harm to the general population.
There are several examples of sanctions imposed by countries or intergovernmental bodies such as the United Nations. Some examples include:
- The United Nations Security Council imposed comprehensive sanctions against Iraq after its invasion of Kuwait in 1990.
- The United States and Europe adopted sanctions against Russia following the annexation of Crimea and the alleged poisoning of a former Russian spy in the UK.
- The United States imposed sanctions on China in 2021 following the repression of the Uighurs minority.
