Athenian Constitution: Reforming For A Better Future

The Constitution of Athens, also known as the Athenian Constitution, was written by Aristotle or one of his students in 328-322 BC. It describes the political system of ancient Athens, which had a long history of constitutional reform. The constitution aimed to address the contention between the upper classes and the populace, as the poor were serfs to the rich. The reforms of Solon in the early 6th century BC are considered to have put Athens on the road to democracy, as he deprived the Areopagus (a council of aristocratic elders) of its judicial power and established an Ecclesia or Assembly open to all male citizens. Solon also made significant economic reforms, including cancelling debts and freeing debtors. Further reforms occurred under Ephialtes and Pericles in the 5th century BC, resulting in what historians refer to as Athens' Golden Age of Pericles.

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The constitution was oligarchic, with the poor as serfs

The Athenian coup of 411 BC overthrew the democratic government of ancient Athens and replaced it with a short-lived oligarchy known as the Four Hundred. The coup was led by a group of wealthy and powerful Athenians who sought to establish an oligarchy of the elite, believing they could manage foreign, fiscal, and war policies better than the existing government. This group included prominent members of the Athenian army, such as Alcibiades, and was coordinated from the Athenian base in Samos.

The new constitution established by the oligarchs was designed to consolidate their power and exclude the lower classes from political participation. The previous council was replaced with one consisting of 400 men who would serve without pay, effectively barring the lower classes from participating. This council of 400 would then choose 5 "presidents", who would each select 100 men for the council, who would in turn each select 3 others, resulting in a total of 400. This group of 400 would then choose 5,000 Athenians who would be the only citizens eligible to partake in assemblies.

The constitution was not just oligarchical but solidified the power of the rich over the poor. The poor, including men, women, and children, were essentially serfs to the rich, cultivating their lands at a rent that often led to crushing debt. They were known as Pelatae or Hectemori and could be forced into slavery, along with their children, if they could not pay their rent. The whole country was in the hands of a few persons, and the masses had no part or share in anything, with their state of serfdom being the hardest and bitterest part of the constitution in their eyes.

This state of affairs led to contention between the upper classes and the populace, with the people rising against the upper class. Eventually, the two parties appointed Solon as a mediator and Archon, and he was given the task of creating a new constitution. Solon divided the population according to property into four classes and assigned various magistracies to the three wealthiest classes. He also abolished debts and ratified his laws for a hundred years. However, his actions displeased both the upper and lower classes, and he ultimately left Athens for Egypt.

Solon's reforms aimed to reduce aristocratic influence

The Athenian Constitution, also known as the Constitution of the Athenians, was a treatise on the constitution of Athens written by Aristotle or one of his students. It is preserved on a papyrus roll from Hermopolis, now in the British Library. The Athenian Constitution describes the political system of ancient Athens.

Solon was responsible for implementing the Solonian Constitution in Athens in the early 6th century BC. He came from an aristocratic family and had aristocratic beginnings, but his reforms aimed to reduce aristocratic influence. At the time of Solon's reforms, Athens was divided by dissensions between rival parties and classes. The state was administered by nine archons appointed or elected annually by the Areopagus based on noble birth and wealth. The lowest class, the Thetes, was not admitted to the assembly of Athenian citizens (the Ekklesia), and its deliberative procedures were controlled by the nobles.

Solon's constitutional reforms have been interpreted in different ways. Some see them as a radical anticipation of democratic government, while others view them as merely providing a plutocratic flavour to a stubbornly aristocratic regime. His economic reforms also had questionable motives, and it is unclear whether they were intended to serve the needs of the poor or the needs of a changing economy.

In addition to reducing aristocratic influence, Solon's reforms also covered other areas of life, including politics, religion, public and private life (such as marriage, burial, and the use of springs and wells), civil and criminal law, commerce, agriculture, and sumptuary regulation.

Kleisthenes' reforms increased democratic participation

The Athenian Constitution, also known as the Constitution of the Athenians, was a treatise on the constitution of Athens written by Aristotle or one of his students. It describes the political system of ancient Athens.

Kleisthenes, an ancient Athenian lawgiver, is credited with reforming the constitution of ancient Athens and setting it on a democratic footing in 508 BC. He is regarded as the founder of Athenian democracy and historians refer to him as "the father of Athenian democracy". Kleisthenes was a member of the aristocratic Alcmaeonid clan and the younger son of Megacles and Agariste. Through his reforms, Kleisthenes established isonomic institutions in Athens, which provided equal rights for all citizens (although only free men and women were considered citizens).

Another key reform by Kleisthenes was the reorganisation of the entire citizen body into ten new tribes, each containing elements from across Attica. These tribes were not based on the old four Ionian tribes, which were determined purely by descent. Instead, membership in the new tribes was based on residence, and they became the key mechanism for choosing the members of a new political and administrative Council of Five Hundred, which prepared business for the Assembly. This council could be said to have involved all of Attica in the political process for the first time.

Kleisthenes also increased the power of the Athenian citizens' assembly and reduced the power of the nobility over Athenian politics. He based individual political responsibility on citizenship of a place rather than membership in a clan. This helped to weaken the influence of his political adversaries and increase democratic participation.

Overall, Kleisthenes' reforms transformed the Athenian political system, making it much more democratic and increasing the participation of all citizens in public life.

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Ephialtes' reforms reduced the powers of the Areopagus

The Areopagus was a council composed of former archons, which was a traditionally conservative force. In 462 BCE, Ephialtes passed a series of reforms that reduced the powers of the Areopagus and redistributed them among other bodies.

The Areopagus had traditionally held significant influence in Athenian democracy. However, Ephialtes' reforms sought to weaken its prestige and authority. He prosecuted certain members for maladministration, which diminished the council's standing. Ephialtes then proposed and passed a series of reforms through the popular assembly, known as the Ephialtic reforms. These reforms targeted the powers traditionally held by the Areopagus.

The specific additional powers stripped from the Areopagus are unknown, but scholars believe they included control of public offices such as the dokimasia and euthynai. The dokimasia was a process to examine the capabilities of people holding office, while the euthynai was an examination process for officials leaving office. These powers were likely transferred to other bodies, such as the democratic council of the Boule, the ekklesia, or the popular courts.

The Areopagus was left with limited jurisdiction over homicide, murder, and some religious matters and offences. It is also speculated that they ceased to hear crimes against the state, with these cases being redirected to the popular courts. The reforms of Ephialtes transformed the political system of Athenian democracy, increasing the power of the courts and other bodies. This shift in power dynamics led to new challenges, such as secret balloting in the courts, where jurors could be bribed.

Ephialtes' reforms were a significant shift in Athenian democracy, reducing the influence of the traditionally powerful Areopagus and redistributing its powers to other bodies, particularly the courts and democratic councils. These changes had a lasting impact on the political landscape of Athens.

Athens' defeat in the Sicilian campaign led to a shift towards oligarchy

The Sicilian Expedition was a military campaign in which Athens suffered a devastating defeat, leading to significant political and economic instability in the city-state. The loss of a huge fleet and thousands of experienced oarsmen crippled Athens' military power, making it increasingly difficult to defend against enemies like Sparta. The financial strain caused by the expedition forced the Athenian government to impose heavy taxes on its citizens, including the wealthy elite, causing resentment among the aristocracy.

The Sicilian disaster also exacerbated political divisions in Athens, with the traditional elite and aristocracy blaming democracy for the defeat and seeking a return to oligarchy, which would restore their control over the city. Alcibiades, an Athenian nobleman, and his supporters instigated a coup in 411 BC, taking advantage of the unstable situation to seize power from the democrats. This marked a shift towards oligarchy in Athens, with the establishment of a short-lived government known as the Four Hundred.

The coup was driven by the belief that a government led by the elite would better manage foreign affairs, fiscal policies, and war efforts. However, the oligarchy, known as the 400, faced internal conflict between moderates and extremists, leading to its replacement by a broader oligarchy of "the 5,000." The Athenian democracy was temporarily restored, but the damage caused by the Sicilian campaign had lasting effects, and Athens was never again the dominant political force it once was in the Greek world.

The Sicilian defeat had far-reaching consequences, not only weakening Athens' military and political power but also creating economic turmoil. The financial strain and subsequent taxation alienated the wealthy elite, who sought a shift towards oligarchy to regain control. This power dynamic shift demonstrates the fragile nature of Athenian democracy at the time and highlights the impact of military failures on the stability of the city-state's governing structures.

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