Eleanor Finch
The concept of a constitutional monarchy, also known as a limited, parliamentary, or democratic monarchy, involves a monarch sharing power with a constitutionally organized government. The monarch's power is limited by a set of laws or a constitution, and they are not the sole decision-maker. While it is challenging to pinpoint the first constitutional monarch in history, as the concept has evolved over time, several notable examples of early constitutional monarchies include Poland's constitution for a monarchy in 1791, the short-lived French constitutional monarchy established in 1791, and Hawaii's transition to a constitutional monarchy in 1840 under King Kamehameha III. These examples mark significant shifts from absolute monarchies toward a system where the monarch's power is constrained by a legal framework.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First constitutional monarchy | France, 1791 |
| First constitutional monarchy outside of Europe | Hawaii, 1840 |
| First constitutional monarchy in continental Europe | Poland |
| First constitutional monarchy after the French Revolution | France, several times from 1789 through the 19th century |
| First constitutional monarchy after the First World War | Germany |
| First constitutional monarchy after the Second World War | Britain |
| First constitutional monarchy with a single document constitution | United States |
| First emperor of France in what was ostensibly a constitutional monarchy | Napoleon Bonaparte, 1804 |
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What You'll Learn
France's first constitutional monarchy
The establishment of the constitutional monarchy was a significant event during the French Revolution, which began in 1789. The revolution sought to address issues in taxation, finance, and society, and the Constitution of 1791 aimed to rectify these problems. The constitution was influenced by Enlightenment ideas of equality, resulting in the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen. It abolished the nobility of France and declared all men equal before the law. The constitution also separated French citizens into active and passive categories, with only active male citizens of the property-owning class having the right to vote.
The constitutional monarchy in France was short-lived, lasting from 1791 until 21 September 1792, when it was replaced by the French First Republic. The monarchy was abolished due to the radicalism of the Revolution, which the king found unacceptably limiting to his power. King Louis XVI's attempted escape from France, known as the "Flight to Varennes," further damaged public opinion of the monarchy. The National Convention, elected under universal male suffrage, officially abolished the monarchy on 21 September 1792, ending 203 years of consecutive Bourbon rule in France.
Following the defeat of Napoleon in the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the monarchy was restored by a coalition of European powers, who returned the monarchy to the House of Bourbon. Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, became the king, nicknamed "The Desired." Louis XVIII attempted to reconcile the legacies of the Revolution and the Ancien Régime, allowing the formation of a Parliament and a constitutional Charter, known as the "Charte octroyée." However, his reign was marked by disagreements between liberal thinkers who supported the Charter and the rising bourgeoisie, and ultra-royalists who rejected the Revolution's heritage.
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Poland's constitutional monarchy
The first constitutional monarchy in Europe, and the second in the world, was established in Poland with the Constitution of 3 May 1791. This constitution, titled the Government Act, was a written constitution for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a dual monarchy comprising the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It was adopted by the Great Sejm that met between 1788 and 1792 and was intended to address political questions following a period of political agitation and gradual reform. The Constitution of 3 May 1791 abolished the "free election" of individual kings, which had been based on traditions dating to the beginning of Polish statehood, and established a constitutional-parliamentary monarchy.
The Polish constitutional monarchy was characterized by a system of checks and balances on state power, which was itself limited by decentralization. The executive power was in the hands of "the King in his council", a cabinet of ministers called the Guardians of the Laws. The ministries could not create or interpret laws, and all acts of the foreign ministry were provisional and subject to Sejm approval. The Sejm, the lower house of parliament, had the right to vote on civil, administrative, and legal issues, and with permission from the king, it could also vote on matters related to the fiscal system and the military. It also had the right to control government officials and file petitions.
The Polish constitutional monarchy was a response to the increasing political instability caused by the election of weak and controllable monarchs, as well as the large amounts of corruption, particularly related to bribes. The new constitution strengthened the powers of the Sejm, moving the country away from an absolute monarchy and towards a constitutional monarchy.
The Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland, also known as Congress Poland, was granted to the country by King Alexander I of Russia in 1815. This constitution was considered among the most liberal of its time, promising freedom of speech and religious tolerance, among other freedoms. However, it was never fully respected by the Russian authorities, and its liberal provisions were often manipulated, avoided, or violated by the government. This disregard for the promised rights led to increasing discontent within Poland, eventually culminating in the failed November Uprising in 1830. The constitution was modified during the uprising and superseded in 1832 by the much more conservative Organic Statute of the Kingdom of Poland granted by Tsar Nicholas I of Russia.
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Britain's constitutional monarchy
Britain's monarchy, also referred to as the British monarchy, is a constitutional monarchy, a system of government where a monarch shares power with a constitutionally organized government. The current monarch of the United Kingdom is King Charles III, who ascended the throne following the death of his mother, Queen Elizabeth II, in September 2022.
The monarch is the head of state and has authority over the government, known as "His/Her Majesty's Government". However, their power is limited and can only be used within the constraints of laws enacted in Parliament and established legal frameworks. The monarch acts on the advice of the government and is bound by constitutional convention. The monarch's role is largely ceremonial and symbolic, performing functions such as bestowing honours, appointing the prime minister, and other non-partisan functions. They hold a weekly audience with the prime minister, expressing their views and ultimately accepting the prime minister's decisions.
The United Kingdom and fourteen other independent sovereign states, known as Commonwealth realms, share the same monarch. Each country is independent of the others, and the monarch has a unique national title and style for each realm. The monarch is also the head of state of the Crown Dependencies and British Overseas Territories.
The British model of constitutional monarchy has been influential, with many surviving European monarchies adopting a similar system after the Second World War. The monarchy in the United Kingdom operates under an uncodified Constitution, with the monarch referred to in legislation as "the Sovereign" and styled as His or Her Majesty. While the monarch has formal powers, such as dissolving parliament or giving royal assent, these powers are generally exercised in accordance with constitutional principles or conventions rather than personal preferences.
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India's constitutional monarchy
India was a constitutional monarchy for a brief period between gaining its independence from the British on 15 August 1947 and becoming a republic when it adopted its constitution in 1950. During this time, George VI was the head of state and Earl Mountbatten was the governor-general.
The Indian Independence Act 1947 formalised the Dominion of India, which remained "India" in common parlance but was geographically reduced by the lands that went to the separate dominion of Pakistan. Under the Act, the King remained the monarch of India, but the British government relinquished responsibility for administering its former territories. The Dominion of India was beset by religious violence, which was soon stemmed by Mahatma Gandhi.
In 1946, the Objectives Resolution explicitly mentioned that 'all power and authority of the Sovereign Independent India, its constituent parts and organs of government, are derived from the people'. Introducing it, Jawaharlal Nehru made it clear that monarchy is not in consonance with this objective of a sovereign Indian republic. The entire Assembly agreed on this objective, so the question of continuing India’s relationship with the British Crown never came up.
The new constitution of the Republic of India was drafted by the Constituent Assembly between 1946 and 1949. It was based largely on the Government of India Act 1935, the last constitution of British India, but also reflected some elements of the Constitutions of the United States and Ireland. The new constitution disavowed some aspects of India's past by abolishing untouchability and derecognising caste distinctions.
It is not unimaginable that India could have emerged as a constitutional monarchy, retaining a monarchic form of government under a native monarch. At the time of independence, there were 565 princely states in India, some of whom had high rank and ruled extensive lands, while others ruled a few villages. India could have chosen a constitutional monarch from an illustrious family, most probably from the descendants of the Mughals or the Marathas, the last two major Indian dynasties that spanned most of the subcontinent. Alternatively, India could have set up a system similar to that of Malaysia or the United Arab Emirates, in which the rulers of hereditary states elect a king from among themselves for a fixed term.
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Hawaii's constitutional monarchy
The Kingdom of Hawaii, initially an absolute monarchy, transitioned to a constitutional monarchy in 1840. This was when King Kamehameha III, who had the longest reign in the history of the monarchy, promulgated the kingdom's first constitution. The Hawaiian Kingdom thus became an early example of a monarchy in Polynesian societies, with similar developments occurring in Tahiti, Tonga, Fiji, and New Zealand.
The constitutional monarchy established in Hawaii differed from absolute monarchy, in which a monarch is the sole decision-maker. In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and shares power with a constitutionally organized government. They are bound to exercise their powers and authorities within the limits prescribed by an established legal framework.
The 1887 Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom, also known as the "Bayonet Constitution", stripped the King of most of his personal authority, empowering the legislature, and establishing a cabinet government. It was drafted by Lorrin A. Thurston, the Minister of Interior under King Kalākaua. The new constitution allowed the citizenry to elect members of the House of Nobles, who were previously appointed by the King. It also increased the property value required for citizens to be eligible to vote and denied voting rights to Asians, who comprised a large proportion of the population.
The Bayonet Constitution continued to allow the monarch to appoint cabinet ministers but took away their power to dismiss them without the approval of the Legislature. King Kalākaua died in 1891, and his sister, Liliʻuokalani, assumed the throne. She wanted to restore power to the monarch by abrogating the 1887 Constitution and launched a campaign, resulting in a petition to proclaim a new Constitution. However, this alarmed citizens and residents, and in 1893, local businessmen and politicians overthrew the regime and took over the government. This ended the monarchy in Hawaii.
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Frequently asked questions
The first constitutional monarch was King Louis XVI of France. In 1791, following the collapse of the absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime, France adopted its first written constitution, limiting the powers of the king.
Louis XVI's constitutional monarchy was short-lived. It ended in 1792 with the Insurrection of 10 August and the establishment of the French First Republic.
Yes, Poland developed the first constitution for a monarchy in continental Europe, with the Constitution of 3 May 1791.
Yes, in 1840, Hawaii transitioned to a constitutional monarchy when King Kamehameha III promulgated the kingdom's first constitution.
