Jonah Patel
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted in 1789, was a human and civil rights document that emerged during the French Revolution. It proclaimed freedom and equal rights for all Men and access to public office based on talent. However, the freedom it promised did not extend to everyone. While the 1791 Constitution distinguished between active and passive citizens, it failed to address the issue of citizenship fully. This period saw the rise of radical measures, including the abolition of feudalism and state control over the Catholic Church, but the revolution's impact on slavery was complex and varied. Napoleon reinstated slavery in 1802, but he later abolished the slave trade in 1815, and slavery was finally abolished in France in 1848.
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What You'll Learn
The French Revolution and slavery
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted on 26 August 1789, was a human and civil rights document from the French Revolution. It proclaimed freedom and equal rights for all "Men", the right to participate in the legislative process, freedom of speech and press, and the end of arbitrary arrests and feudalism. While the Declaration inspired similar texts worldwide, its impact on slavery was more complex.
Slavery in France and its colonies had a long history, dating back to the Middle Ages. While chattel slavery was abolished in France in the 14th century, it persisted in the colonies, where it was essential for extracting raw materials and agricultural production. The French Revolution sparked debates about slavery, as the Revolution's ideals of liberty and equality clashed with the reality of slavery in the colonies.
During the French Revolution, groups such as the Society of the Friends of Blacks advocated for the abolition of slavery and the improvement of conditions for slaves. In 1791, the slaves of Saint Domingue (later Haiti) rebelled, initiating the first successful slave revolt in history. In response, the National Assembly rescinded the rights of free blacks and mulattos, prompting them to join the revolt. In 1793, the Jacobins abolished slavery in the colonies, but it was reinstated by Napoleon in 1802.
The Haitian Revolution ultimately led to the independence of Haiti in 1804 and the abolition of the slave trade by Napoleon in 1815. However, slavery continued in other French colonies until it was finally abolished in 1848. The French Revolution, with its ideals of liberty and equality, set in motion a process of questioning and challenging slavery, even if the immediate impact was inconsistent and marked by continued resistance from slaveowners.
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Napoleon's reinstatement of slavery
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, a human and civil rights document from the French Revolution, was established in 1789. It called for freedom and equal rights for all "Men". Inspired by Enlightenment philosophers, the declaration was a core statement of the values of the French Revolution and had a significant impact on the development of popular conceptions of individual liberty and democracy in Europe and worldwide.
However, Napoleon Bonaparte reinstated slavery in 1802, eight years after it was abolished in all of France's overseas possessions. This decision was influenced by revolts in the colonies, lobbying from colonial businessmen, and his interest in the geopolitical and economic benefits of slavery. Napoleon needed workers to colonize Louisiana in North America, and to achieve this, he needed total control over Saint-Domingue, which was central to that geographical area. He sent troops to overthrow the revolutionary leader Toussaint Louverture and restore colonial order, but his attempts to reinstate slavery in Saint-Domingue ultimately failed. Napoleon's decision to reinstate slavery is considered a betrayal of the ideals of the French Revolution and a crime against humanity, condemning an estimated 300,000 people to a life of bondage.
Napoleon signed two laws in 1802 that reversed France's previous decision to outlaw slavery. The first was the Law of 20 May 1802, a decree that reinstated slavery in French colonies, reversing the Law of 4 February 1794. The second was a short law that maintained slavery in places where it had been impossible to abolish it, namely the colonies of the Antilles and those east of the Cape of Good Hope. This text did not abrogate the abolition law but effectively reintroduced slavery, as shown by Napoleon's instructions to reintroduce it in Guadeloupe and Guyana at an opportune moment.
In Cayenne, slavery was restored by a consular decree on 7 December 1802, followed by a local decree on 24 April 1803 that officially reestablished slavery. Napoleon's attempts to restore slavery in Saint-Domingue were unsuccessful, and he eventually gave up on North America, agreeing to the Louisiana Purchase by the United States. In 1804, the leaders of Saint-Domingue declared it an independent state, the Republic of Haiti. Napoleon abolished the slave trade in 1815, and slavery was finally abolished in France in 1848.
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Restrictions on the freedom of former slaves
The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a period of political and societal change in France. The revolution's ideas are considered fundamental principles of liberal democracy, and its values remain central to modern French political discourse.
During the revolution, free people of colour were part of the first wave of revolt, and formerly enslaved people eventually took control. In 1794, the convention was dominated by the Jacobins, who abolished slavery, including in the colonies of Saint-Domingue and Guadeloupe. However, the freedom of former slaves was restricted. Historian Fréderic Régent states that only whites, persons of colour freed before the decree, and former slaves in the army or on warships truly benefited from general emancipation. Freed slaves faced restrictions on their freedom of employment and movement. They were required to work on their former plantations or for their former masters if they were in domestic service. While they were paid wages and gained property rights, their freedom was limited.
Napoleon reinstated slavery in 1802 and attempted to regain control of Saint-Domingue by sending in thousands of troops. However, after suffering significant losses, the French withdrew from Saint-Domingue in 1803. Napoleon abolished the slave trade in 1815, and slavery was finally abolished in France in 1848.
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The abolition of slavery in 1848
The abolition of slavery in France was a long and protracted process. While slavery in France was abolished in 1315 by a decree from Louis X, it continued in French colonies until the 19th century. The French Revolution and slave insurrections in the West Indies, particularly in Saint-Domingue, led to the first attempt to abolish slavery in French colonies on February 4, 1794. However, Napoleon reinstated slavery in 1802.
During the French Revolution, the Society of the Friends of the Blacks, founded in Paris in 1788, was active in the abolitionist movement. The Abbé Grégoire and the Society of the Friends of the Blacks laid important groundwork in building anti-slavery sentiment in Metropolitan France. The second general abolition of slavery took place on the same date in 1794, when slavery was abolished in all French territories and possessions under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre. The French constitution promulgated in 1795 declared in its Declaration of the Rights of Man that slavery was abolished. However, this was not the end of slavery in French colonies.
The Mackau Laws, passed on July 18–19, 1845, paved the way towards the abolition of slavery in France and its colonies. On April 27, 1848, the Proclamation of the Abolition of Slavery in the French Colonies was made, and it came into effect on the same date with the Decree abolishing Slavery. Martinique was the first French overseas colony where the decree came into force, on May 23, 1848. Gabon was founded as a settlement for emancipated slaves.
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The impact of the French withdrawal from Saint-Domingue
The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) was a successful insurrection by self-liberated enslaved Africans against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, which is now the sovereign state of Haiti. The revolution was sparked by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which stated that "men are born and remain free and equal in rights". This statement inspired several different groups in Haiti to seek more freedom.
In 1794, the convention was dominated by the Jacobins, who abolished slavery, including in the colonies of Saint-Domingue and Guadeloupe. However, in 1802, Napoleon sent thousands of troops to Saint-Domingue in an attempt to regain control of the island and reinstate slavery. The French forces were weakened by yellow fever, which killed many of their men, including General Leclerc. The French troops committed many atrocities in their attempt to bring the island back under control and restore slavery. In response, blacks killed many of the whites who had remained in Saint-Domingue.
In 1801, Toussaint Louverture, a former slave and military leader, had himself named "governor-general for life". He negotiated with the British, who withdrew from Saint-Domingue in 1798. In 1802, Louverture put the peasants back to work on the plantations under military rule and encouraged many of the French proprietors to return. However, the French position in Saint-Domingue became truly hopeless with the renewal of hostilities between France and Britain in May 1803. The French commander Rochambeau was forced to surrender and agree to withdraw from the island.
The French withdrawal from Saint-Domingue had several significant impacts. Firstly, it led to the independence of Haiti, which became the first country in the world to be founded by former captives and ruled by non-whites. Secondly, it demonstrated the power of the Haitian people and their ability to resist colonial rule. Thirdly, it sent a powerful message to other colonies in the Americas, inspiring further revolutions and insurrections against slavery and colonial rule. Finally, it had a significant economic impact, as Saint-Domingue was the richest European colony in the world and a major producer of sugar and coffee. The withdrawal of the French from Saint-Domingue marked a turning point in the history of slavery and colonialism in the Atlantic World.
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Frequently asked questions
During the French Revolution, which lasted from 1789 to 1799, there were several attempts to take freedom away from Black people. In 1793, royalist planters from Guadeloupe and Saint-Domingue formed an alliance with Britain, and the Spanish supported insurgent slaves, leading to a conflict. In 1802, Napoleon reinstated slavery and attempted to regain control of Saint-Domingue by sending in thousands of troops, but he ultimately failed and gave up on North America.
Yes, in 1793, there were restrictions placed on the freedom of employment and movement of former slaves. Historian Fréderic Régent states that only whites, persons of colour already freed before the decree, and former slaves in the army or on warships truly benefited from general emancipation.
Slavery in France and its colonies was finally abolished in 1848.
In 1794, the convention was dominated by the Jacobins, who abolished slavery in the colonies of Saint-Domingue and Guadeloupe. In 1804, the leaders of Saint-Domingue declared it an independent state, the Republic of Haiti, the second republic in the New World. Napoleon abolished the slave trade in 1815.
