Malcolm Rivera
On the eve of the French Revolution in 1789, the population of France was divided into three estates, or social classes, constituting the fabric of French society. The First Estate, consisting of the clergy, the Second Estate, consisting of the nobility, and the Third Estate, consisting of the commoners, made up these three orders. The first two estates enjoyed a significantly greater degree of privilege than the third, despite the Third Estate representing more than 90% of the French population and paying almost all taxes.
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What You'll Learn
The First Estate: Clergy
The First Estate of pre-revolutionary France was made up of the Catholic Church's clergy. It included around 130,000 ordained members, from archbishops and bishops to parish priests, monks, friars, and nuns. The First Estate wielded significant power and privilege, and its members were exempt from paying taxes to the state. They were also not subject to military service, and could only be tried for serious crimes by ecclesiastical courts.
The Church's vast wealth came from its ownership of approximately 10% of France's land, with this number varying across regions. In Paris, for example, the First Estate owned about 25% of all property. The Church collected tithes, or 'church tax', from its tenants, as well as rents, and enjoyed an annual income of around 150 million livres.
The Church's influence extended beyond economic power. It controlled almost the entirety of France's education system, had a monopoly on poor relief and hospital provision, and retained powers of censorship over printed materials. The clergy also conducted and registered marriages, baptisms, and funerals, and delivered education to children. In rural areas, the local parish priest was a central and influential figure in the community.
The First Estate occupied a prestigious place in the social order, as religion was a powerful force in 18th-century France. The Church had an ideological stronghold over the people, as it provided the only means for ordinary people to understand and access God and the afterlife. This gave the clergy considerable ideological power and political influence.
However, the Church was not without its critics. On the eve of the French Revolution, it faced growing disillusionment and criticism from those concerned about the corruption and failings of the clergy. The Church's reluctance to tolerate dissent and reform, including its exemption from taxation, was criticised by philosophers, government members, and those within the First Estate itself.
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The Second Estate: Nobility
The Second Estate in pre-revolutionary France was made up of the nobility or aristocracy. Numbering approximately 400,000, they constituted around 1-1.5% of the population. The Second Estate enjoyed many privileges, including exemption from most forms of taxation, such as the gabelle (salt tax) and the taille (direct taxation). They also had the right to wear a sword. This privileged position was justified by the notion that the ancestors of the nobility had paid the 'blood tax' by risking their lives to defend the kingdom.
The nobility was divided into two types: the 'nobles of the sword' and the 'nobles of the robe'. The 'nobles of the sword' were those who had earned their titles through military service and considered themselves of greater importance. The 'nobles of the robe' were granted their titles for non-military service, such as work in finance, administration, or as court officials. The nobility was also divided along religious lines, with a small proportion being protestants or atheists.
The Second Estate was deeply divided on the eve of the French Revolution. Some members of the aristocracy, inspired by the ideas of the Enlightenment, sought to reform the existing regime and introduce a constitutional government. Others vehemently disagreed and sought to preserve the status quo.
The nobility is often depicted as an extravagantly wealthy, lazy, and hedonistic group, disconnected from the realities of French society. This perception contributed to the resentment of the Third Estate, who bore a disproportionate taxation burden. The Second Estate's opposition to political reform can be partly attributed to their exemption from taxes.
Hundreds of nobles acquired their titles through venal offices, purchasing them from the crown rather than receiving them for service. This allowed wealthy members of the Third Estate to join the Second Estate. The entry of former bourgeoisie into the Second Estate was one of the factors that led to the emergence of a small but vocal group of liberal nobles. These liberal nobles would become prominent leaders of the French Revolution.
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The Third Estate: Commoners
The Third Estate, also known as the Tiers état, was made up of commoners from all walks of life. This included wealthy merchants, educated bourgeoisie, skilled artisans, and illiterate peasants. The Third Estate was highly non-homogenous in nature, with a wide range of socioeconomic statuses represented. Despite this diversity, the Third Estate was united in its lack of political power and influence.
During the reign of King Louis XVI of France (1774-1792), the Third Estate was largely excluded from political power and representation. The First and Second Estates, also known as the "Privileged Orders," controlled a disproportionate amount of wealth and power. The Third Estate, despite constituting more than 90% of the French population, had little to no say in the governance of the country. They were also burdened with heavy taxes that the privileged orders did not have to pay.
The Third Estate was subject to a range of direct and indirect taxes, as well as seigneurial dues. They were also denied many of the privileges and rights enjoyed by the nobility and clergy, such as exemption from certain taxes and forced labor. This taxation inequality and lack of political representation were major sources of resentment and desire for reform among the Third Estate.
The creation of the National Assembly in June 1789 marked a significant shift in the political landscape of France. The deputies of the Third Estate, fearing that their voices would continue to be drowned out by the privileged orders, led the formation of this revolutionary body. The National Assembly would go on to serve as the French parliament during the early years of the Revolutionary period, signalling the end of representation based on traditional social classes.
The Third Estate played a crucial role in the French Revolution, which began in 1789. As the majority of the population, they demanded a greater say in the governance of the country and sought to address the inequalities and injustices they had long endured. The revolution originated from a fiscal crisis, and taxation reform was a critical and sensitive issue in the years leading up to 1789. The Third Estate's demands for change and their unity in the face of oppression were key factors in the upheaval that swept through France.
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The Third Estate: Taxation Inequality
The Third Estate, which constituted more than 90% of the French population, was subject to inequitable taxation. The commoners, who could least afford to pay, bore the brunt of the nation's tax burden. This was a significant cause of the French Revolution. The First and Second Estates, despite their greater wealth, paid little to no taxes. The Third Estate was also largely excluded from political power, which further contributed to the rising revolutionary sentiment in the late 1780s.
The Third Estate included everyone from the poorest itinerant peasants to the wealthiest businessmen. The peasants, who made up between 82% and 88% of the population, were the nation's lowest social strata. Most French peasants were poor, with only a small percentage owning land and living independently as yeoman farmers. The rest were either tenants, sharecroppers, or day labourers. The urban population included merchants, skilled artisans, and unskilled workers.
The Third Estate paid a range of direct and indirect taxes, as well as seigneurial dues, many of which were not paid by the privileged orders. For example, they paid the taille, a direct land tax on the peasantry and non-nobles, which became a major source of royal income. They also paid a 5% property tax (the vingtième) and a tax on the number of people in the family (capitation). Additionally, peasants had to pay rent to their landlords and taxes on the use of the nobles' mills, wine presses, and bakeries.
The First Estate, or the clergy, and the Second Estate, or the nobility, enjoyed many privileges and exemptions from taxation. The nobility was exempt from the taille, justified by the notion that their ancestors had paid the 'blood tax' by risking their lives to defend the kingdom. The clergy was also exempt from the vingtième. While the First and Second Estates were required to pay a modest quit-rent and an ad valorem tax on land, these taxes were relatively insignificant compared to the burden shouldered by the Third Estate.
The taxation system in pre-revolutionary France was considered unjust and inequitable, with the bulk of the taxes falling on those who could least afford them. This inequality, coupled with the lack of political power for the Third Estate, fueled resentment and revolutionary ideas.
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The First and Second Estates: Privileged Orders
In pre-revolutionary France, the First Estate was made up of members of the Catholic Church (the clergy). The First Estate wielded significant power and privilege in the country. They collected tithes from their own landed property, which constituted about one-tenth of all territory within the kingdom. Bishops, abbots, and chapters were also lords over some villages and collected manorial taxes. The First Estate was also largely exempt from taxation.
The Second Estate was made up of members of the aristocracy (the nobility). They enjoyed many privileges, including exemption from the corvée royale (forced labor on the roads), and from most forms of taxation. The justification for this immunity was that their ancestors had risked their lives to defend the kingdom, paying what was called the 'blood tax'. The Second Estate also owned a significant amount of property, roughly 20% of French land.
Together, the First and Second Estates were often referred to as the 'Privileged Orders' because they controlled disproportionate amounts of power and wealth. They constituted a very small proportion of the population, with the First Estate numbering around 100,000 people and the Second Estate between 350,000 and 400,000 people.
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Frequently asked questions
The First Estate was made up of members of the Catholic Church, or the clergy. They wielded a significant amount of power and privilege in Ancien Regime France, owning about one-tenth of the kingdom's territory.
The Second Estate was made up of members of the aristocracy, or the nobility. They enjoyed many privileges, including exemption from most forms of taxation.
The Third Estate was made up of all other members of French society, or the commoners. This included everyone from wealthy merchants to illiterate peasants. Despite constituting over 90% of the population, the Third Estate was largely excluded from political power and bore the brunt of the country's taxation.
