Simone Lawson
The French social structure before the French Revolution was divided into three estates or social classes: the clergy, the nobility, and the third estate, which was made up of the middle class, wage workers, and peasants. The middle class, which emerged in the 18th century, was largely made up of prosperous and educated individuals who earned their livelihoods through overseas trade and the manufacture of goods. They were change-makers who advocated for freedom, equal laws, and opportunities for all, and against privilege by birth. Following the French Revolution, the social structure of France changed, with the bourgeoisie, or middle class, becoming the new ruling class.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Social class | Middle class |
| Time period | 18th century |
| Social status | Third estate |
| Profession | Traders, manufacturers, lawyers, court officials, teachers, administrators, small businessmen |
| Education | Access to education |
| Ideas | No privilege by birth, meritocracy, freedom, equal laws and opportunities for all |
| Political power | None |
| Civil rights | None |
| Individual rights | None |
| Tax status | Tax-paying |
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What You'll Learn
The Third Estate
Before the French Revolution, French society was divided into three estates: the First Estate (clergy), the Second Estate (nobility), and the Third Estate (commoners). The Third Estate, also known as the Tiers état, comprised approximately 98% of France's population and included all French people who did not have a noble title or were not ordained in the church.
At the top of the Third Estate's social hierarchy was the bourgeoisie, which ranged from the comfortable middle class to extremely wealthy merchants and landowners. The middle class in the Third Estate included lawyers, court officials, teachers, administrators, and small businessmen. They had access to education and new ideas, and they advocated for a society based on freedom, equal laws, and opportunities for all. They believed that privilege by birth should not be given to any group in society and that special positions should be based on merit.
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The Bourgeoisie
The French bourgeoisie refers specifically to the middle class that emerged during and after the Middle Ages, particularly during the period of industrialization. The term "bourgeoisie" originally described urban dwellers or townspeople, as it derives from the French word for "town," which is "bourg". This group consisted of people who were neither part of the nobility nor the peasantry.
By the time of the French Revolution in 1789, the bourgeoisie had become a significant social group, advocating for more political rights and representation. They played a critical role in the revolution, as their growing socio-economic power clashed with the established aristocracy and monarchy. The Third Estate, led by the bourgeoisie, walked out on the king and the privileged estates, declaring themselves to be the National Assembly. This act of defiance, along with the subsequent storming of the Bastille, signaled the start of the French Revolution and the rise of the bourgeoisie as a powerful force in French society.
In pre-revolutionary France, the bourgeoisie experienced distinct social and economic conditions compared to the nobility. While they were economically prosperous, they lacked noble titles and the associated privileges. This tension between the two classes, with the bourgeoisie demanding political power and social equality, was a significant driving force behind the French Revolution. The Enlightenment ideas embraced by the bourgeoisie further fueled their desire for change. The bourgeoisie's increased involvement in the Parisian economy and society, coupled with their growing wealth and influence, made them a powerful force that transformed France during the 18th and 19th centuries.
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The petite bourgeoisie
Overall, the petite bourgeoisie represents a socio-economic stratum of small business owners and artisans who strive to imitate the upper class and find themselves caught between the interests of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
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The Cadres
The term "cadre" has a variety of meanings in France, one of which pertains to social class. The "cadres" are members of the middle class who are typically office or clerical workers. This includes lower-skilled IT jobs and some supervisory roles. While in English-speaking countries they would be considered the lowest edge of the middle class, in France, they are traditionally treated as their own distinct social class.
The term "cadre" in the context of the workplace is roughly analogous to the term "manager" in the US. However, it can also refer to executives and professionals, encompassing roles with middle-management responsibilities or above. The distinction between "salariés" (employees) and "cadres" (managers) is significant in France, as certain workplace legislation, such as the famous 35-hour working week, does not apply to cadres.
The term "cadre" is often associated with a sense of prestige or superiority. It is considered a protected status in France, with implications for retirement and pension funds. Becoming a cadre is challenging, and it is often associated with having attended elite universities. This exclusivity has been criticised for contributing to high unemployment and strikes, as it prevents a significant portion of society from applying for jobs for which they are qualified.
While the exact boundaries of the cadre class are fluid, it generally represents a segment of the middle class with a degree of prestige and influence in French society.
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The Industrial Revolution's impact
The middle class in French society, often referred to as the bourgeoisie, formed a significant social group and played a crucial role in the country's history, especially during the French Revolution. This class consisted of individuals who were not part of the nobility or the peasant class and were typically defined by their occupation and level of wealth. The Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on the composition and power dynamics of the middle class in French society.
One of the most significant effects was the expansion of the middle class. The rise of industrialization led to the emergence of new industries and economic opportunities, which created a demand for skilled workers, professionals, and entrepreneurs. This resulted in the growth of a new bourgeoisie class, often referred to as the "industrial bourgeoisie." They were typically owners of factories, inventors, or businessmen who profited from the new economic system. These individuals often had a different set of values and aspirations compared to the traditional nobility, and their wealth was based on industrial production and commerce rather than land ownership.
The Industrial Revolution also led to social and economic mobility, allowing individuals from lower classes to ascend into the middle class. This was particularly true for those with valuable skills or expertise, such as engineers, scientists, and managers. The expansion of education and the increasing demand for skilled labor meant that individuals with the right qualifications could improve their social standing and join the bourgeoisie. This period saw the emergence of a more diverse middle class, with individuals from varying backgrounds, including those with working-class origins, joining the ranks of the bourgeoisie.
Additionally, the Industrial Revolution transformed the economic landscape, and this had a significant impact on the power dynamics within the middle class. The traditional bourgeoisie, which consisted of merchants, lawyers, and other professionals, often found their economic power challenged by the rising industrial bourgeoisie. The industrialists, with their vast wealth accumulated from factories and businesses, could now rival the power and influence of the traditional nobility and bourgeoisie. This shift in economic power also led to changes in social and political influence, with the industrial bourgeoisie playing an increasingly prominent role in shaping French society and governance.
The impact of the Industrial Revolution on the French middle class was far-reaching and transformative. It led to a larger and more diverse bourgeoisie, with individuals from various backgrounds and occupations. The economic power of this class grew, challenging the traditional hierarchies and power structures. The social and political influence of the middle class also increased, as they advocated for their interests and played a pivotal role in shaping the course of French history, particularly during times of social and political upheaval, such as the French Revolution. Overall, the Industrial Revolution's impact on the French middle class was a key factor in the evolution of French society and the emergence of a new social order.
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Frequently asked questions
The middle class in 18th-century France was a new social group, comprised of members of the third estate. They were prosperous, educated, and exposed to new ideas. They earned their wealth through overseas trade and manufacturing goods like wool and silk textiles.
Lawyers, court officials, teachers, administrators, small businessmen, and industrialists were considered middle class.
The French middle class believed that privilege by birth should be abolished and that positions in society should be earned based on merit. They advocated for freedom, equal laws, and equal opportunities for all. They also discussed the ideas of philosophers like John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Montesquieu, who put forward the concept of a social contract between the people and their representatives.
The middle class participated in the French Revolution by protesting against the system of privileges. They were influenced by the American Constitution and its guarantee of equal rights. They helped bring about social and economic changes in France, advocating for a society based on freedom and equal opportunities.
