The Rise Of Mexican Dictatorship: Constitution Abolished

The Mexican Revolution, which lasted from 1910 to 1920, was a civil war that resulted in the creation of the Constitution of Mexico in 1917. The revolution was sparked by the oppressive regime of dictator Porfirio Díaz, who had been in power since 1877, violating the principles and ideals of the Mexican Constitution of 1857. Díaz's authoritarian rule, characterized by bullying and intimidation tactics, led to the suppression of civil liberties and the implementation of new land laws that favored wealthy non-nationals, causing great suffering among rural workers and peasants. In 1910, Francisco I. Madero, in exile for his political activism, drafted the Plan de San Luis Potosí, calling for an uprising to overthrow Díaz and restore the Constitution of 1857. The revolution culminated in the creation of the 1917 Constitution, which enshrined social and economic rights for Mexicans, including land reform. However, the country continued to experience political instability, with various revolutionary generals holding office and centralizing state power.

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Porfirio Díaz's dictatorship

Porfirio Díaz, a Mexican general and politician, was the dictator of Mexico from 1876 until 1911—a period known as the Porfiriato. He was in power for over 30 years, the longest of any Mexican ruler.

Born in 1830 to a devoutly Catholic family, Díaz initially studied to become a priest. However, he later switched to law and was mentored by the future President of Mexico, Benito Juárez. Díaz became increasingly active in Liberal Party politics, fighting with the Liberals to overthrow Santa Anna in the Plan of Ayutla and against the Conservative Party in the Reform War.

Díaz's rise to power began with his revolt against President Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada in 1876. He was successful and served as President from 1876 to 1880. During his first term, he focused on improving relations with the United States and Europe, attracting foreign investment, and building infrastructure. In 1884, Díaz returned to office and remained in power until he was overthrown during the Mexican Revolution in 1911.

Díaz's regime has been described as authoritarian and centralizing, with the president dissolving all local authorities and aspects of federalism. He placed his loyal supporters in high positions of power and amended the 1857 Constitution to allow for his re-election and the extension of presidential terms. Díaz suppressed the formation of opposition parties and constantly re-elected himself, leading to growing dissatisfaction among the Mexican people.

The Porfiriato era benefited the wealthy and increased the urban middle class, but it did little to help the poor, who had very few economic opportunities. Díaz's new laws, such as the privatization of communal indigenous lands, led to violence and rebellions against the government. His constant re-elections and brutal suppression of dissent sparked the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which aimed to restore the Constitution of 1857 and establish a democratic republic.

Victoriano Huerta's regime

Victoriano Huerta was a Mexican military officer and politician who played a key role in the country's political turmoil during the early 20th century. Huerta is infamously known for his regime, which lasted from February 1913 to July 1914, during which he served as the dictator of Mexico.

Huerta's rise to power was marked by intrigue and violence. In February 1913, he participated in a coup d'état against the democratically elected president, Francisco I. Madero. With the support of a group of rebellious generals and conservative elites, Huerta helped to overthrow Madero's government and establish a new regime. However, Madero's murder shortly after the coup sparked widespread outrage and marked the beginning of a new phase in the Mexican Revolution.

From the outset, Huerta's regime faced significant challenges and opposition. He inherited a country plagued by political instability, economic woes, and social unrest. Various revolutionary factions, including those led by Venustiano Carranza, Emiliano Zapata, and Pancho Villa, rose up against Huerta's government, challenging his authority and engaging in armed struggles. Huerta responded with brutal repression, earning him the nickname "The Usurper" or "The Butcher." He attempted to consolidate power by imposing martial law, censoring the press, and employing political assassinations to eliminate his opponents.

During his regime, Huerta attempted to maintain order and establish his legitimacy. He sought recognition from foreign powers, particularly the United States, by promising to protect their economic interests in Mexico. However, his efforts were largely unsuccessful, as the United States, along with other countries, refused to recognize his government due to the controversial nature of his rise to power. Domestically, Huerta faced an uphill battle in trying to unite the country under his rule. He attempted to co-opt support from various political factions, including conservatives, moderates, and even some revolutionaries, but his efforts often fell short, as many Mexicans viewed his regime as illegitimate and authoritarian.

The Huerta regime was characterized by political repression, human rights abuses, and a general disregard for democratic principles. Huerta's government was dominated by the military, with many key positions being held by military officers loyal to him. He relied heavily on the army to maintain control, often using it to crush dissent and opposition. Huerta's regime also witnessed a significant centralization of power, as he sought to undermine any potential sources of opposition or resistance. The judiciary and legislative branches of government became subservient to the executive, effectively concentrating power in the hands of Huerta and his close associates.

Ultimately, Huerta's regime proved to be short-lived. Facing increasing pressure from revolutionary forces, a lack of international recognition, and growing discontent within his own military ranks, Huerta's position became untenable. In July 1914, he was forced to resign and fled the country, bringing an end to his dictatorship. The overthrow of Huerta marked a turning point in the Mexican Revolution, as the country embarked on a new phase of political reorganization and the search for stability under the leadership of Venustiano Carranza, who established a new constitutional government.

The Constitutionalist Army

Carranza had some military forces that he could rely on for loyalty, and he also had the theoretical support of Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata. However, after Huerta's defeat in 1914, Villa and Zapata turned against the Constitutionalists. In July 1913, Carranza divided the country into seven areas for military operations. When fighting broke out in 1914 between the Constitutionalists and the Conventionalists (Villa and Zapata) following the Convention of Aguascalientes, the Constitutional Army numbered 57,000 men, while Villa and Zapata had 72,000. As the Constitutionalists grew stronger, Villa and Zapata grew weaker, and the war against the Conventionalists was ultimately won after Zapata's assassination in 1919 and Villa's surrender in July 1920.

In late 1910, Francisco I. Madero, who was in exile for his political activism, drafted the Plan de San Luis Potosí, which called for an uprising to restore the Constitution of 1857 and replace Díaz with a provisional government. This plan was widely distributed and embraced by rebel movements across Mexico. By early 1911, a large armed struggle was underway in the northern state of Chihuahua, led by local merchant Pascual Orozco and Francisco "Pancho" Villa. Díaz resigned and left the country in May 1911, and Madero became president after the elections that same year. However, Madero was assassinated in early 1913 by a commander of the federal forces, Victoriano Huerta, who then seized power.

Huerta's presidency is characterised as a dictatorship, and he faced heavy opposition. In 1914, US President Woodrow Wilson sent American Marines to Vera Cruz, Mexico, to support the revolutionaries. Huerta resigned and left the country in 1914. After Huerta's presidency, Carranza, a wealthy landowner and chief of the Northern Coalition, gathered revolutionary forces in Veracruz, where he established a Constitutionalist government. The Constitutionalists, led by figures such as Carranza and Álvaro Obregón, fought against the Conventionalists, led by Villa and Zapata. The Constitutionalists ultimately defeated the Conventionalists, but Mexico continued to experience political instability and revolutionary conflicts in the years that followed.

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The Plan of San Luis Potosí

In the manifesto, Madero called for an uprising on November 20, 1910, to restore the Constitution of 1857, establish a democratic republic, and abolish unlimited presidential terms. He aimed to replace the dictatorship with a provisional government and promised the return of lands illegally taken by the government and courts under Díaz. The plan was dated October 5, 1910, the last day Madero was in San Luis Potosí before escaping to the United States, and it was widely distributed and embraced by rebel movements across Mexico.

The Mexican Revolution, which lasted from 1910 to 1920, was a significant political, social, and cultural upheaval. It was marked by armed struggles, such as the one led by Pascual Orozco and Francisco "Pancho" Villa in the northern state of Chihuahua. The revolution also saw the rise of revolutionary leaders like Emiliano Zapata, who continued his rebellion under the Plan of Ayala, calling for land redistribution.

Following the revolution, Mexico saw a period of centralized state power and the implementation of revolutionary reforms, including the establishment of a new constitution in 1917. This constitution enshrined economic rights, workers' rights, secularism, land reform, and enhanced federal government power. However, President Venustiano Carranza, who was elected under this new constitution, largely ignored its promises, leading to continued unrest and his eventual assassination in 1920.

The Mexican Revolution

In 1908, Díaz expressed ambivalence about running for his seventh reelection as president in 1910. In response, Francisco Madero, an idealistic liberal from an upper-class family, emerged as the leader of the Antireeleccionistas and announced his candidacy. Díaz had Madero arrested and declared himself the winner after a mock election in June 1910. From exile in San Antonio, Texas, Madero published his Plan de San Luis Potosí, calling for a revolt on November 20, 1910, to restore the Constitution of 1857 and replace Díaz with a provisional government.

The revolution began on November 20, 1910, and continued for a decade, resulting in the destruction of the Federal Army and its replacement by a revolutionary army. It was a civil war that saw the rise of revolutionary generals who held power from 1920 to 1940. Foreign powers, particularly the United States, played a significant role in the outcome of Mexico's power struggles. The conflict led to the deaths of around one million people, mostly non-combatants.

In early 1911, a large armed struggle emerged in the northern state of Chihuahua, led by local merchant Pascual Orozco and Francisco "Pancho" Villa. In the spring of 1911, the revolutionary forces took Ciudad Juárez, forcing Díaz to resign, and declared Madero president. However, Madero's regime struggled from the start as he failed to implement the land reforms he had promised, disappointing his followers. Zapata, a key revolutionary figure, turned against Madero due to his failure to restore land to dispossessed Native Americans.

In February 1913, Madero was assassinated by Victoriano Huerta, a commander of the federal forces, who joined the counterrevolutionaries led by Díaz's nephew. Huerta's regime lasted from February 1913 to July 1914 and was marked by the defeat of the Federal Army by revolutionary armies. Huerta was overthrown by Venustiano Carranza in 1914, with support from the United States. Carranza consolidated power and promulgated a new constitution in February 1917, which established universal male suffrage, promoted secularism, workers' rights, economic nationalism, land reform, and enhanced the power of the federal government. Carranza became president in 1917 but was assassinated after attempting to impose a civilian successor, leading to further political instability.

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