Isabella Carter
Throughout history, various tactics have been employed in warfare, some of which are considered brutal and violent due to their devastating impact on humanity. One such tactic is genocide, which involves the mass killing of a particular group, as infamously carried out by the Mongols, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 11% of the world's population. Sieges, such as the Siege of Leningrad, have also been used to devastating effect, causing starvation and desperation among civilians. Chemical warfare, as witnessed in World War I, introduced lethal gases like chlorine, mustard gas, and phosgene, which inflicted immense suffering on troops. Roman legionnaires employed a unique formation called cohorts, advancing as one and trampling enemies underfoot, ensuring the death of survivors with nailed sandals. Brutal methods of terrorism have also been utilised by religious and ideological groups, including the Sicarii, Assassins, and Thugi, who employed stabbing, strangulation, and targeted killings to strike fear and achieve their objectives.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Genocide | Used by the Mongols to kill 11% of the world's population |
| Chemical warfare | Chlorine, mustard gas, and phosgene gas |
| Siege | The Siege of Leningrad lasted from 1941 to 1944, resulting in over 1 million civilian deaths |
| Military formations | Used by the Roman Empire to efficiently kill enemies |
| Rape and sexual violence | Used to humiliate, dominate, and instill fear in communities |
| Biological warfare | Bacteria, fungi, toxins, and viruses |
| Nuclear warfare | N/A |
| Explosive events | N/A |
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Genocide
The convention defines genocide as requiring a "mental element" and a "physical element". The mental element is the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group. This intent, or dolus specialis, is what makes genocide unique. It is important to note that cultural destruction or the intention to disperse a group does not constitute genocide. The physical element involves five acts, including deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction.
The Rwandan Genocide of 1994 serves as a tragic example. Following Rwanda's independence in 1962, the Hutus consolidated power and discriminated against the Tutsis, excluding them from careers and implementing education quotas. Hutu Power ideology, grounded in racist theories, labelled the Tutsis as inferior and propagated their image as foreigners to Rwanda. Hutu radicals compiled lists of Tutsi targets and stockpiled weapons, including machetes, which would become the primary tool of the genocide. They also launched a radio channel, Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines (RTLM), to spread propaganda and incite hatred towards the Tutsis. On April 6, 1994, when the Rwandan President's plane was shot down, the Hutus were urged to attack the Tutsis, marking the beginning of the genocide.
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Chemical warfare
The use of chemical weapons in international armed conflicts is prohibited under international humanitarian law by the 1925 Geneva Protocol and the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention prohibits signatories from acquiring, stockpiling, developing, and using chemical weapons in all circumstances except for very limited purposes, such as research, medical, pharmaceutical, or protective purposes.
Despite these prohibitions, chemical warfare has been used throughout history. Some of the earliest surviving references to toxic warfare appear in the Indian epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. The "Laws of Manu," a Hindu treatise on statecraft (c. 400 BC), forbids the use of poison and fire arrows but advises poisoning food and water. Kautilya's "Arthashastra," a statecraft manual from the same era, contains hundreds of recipes for creating poison weapons, toxic smokes, and other chemical weapons.
During World War I, both sides used poisonous gas to inflict agonising suffering and cause significant battlefield casualties. Chlorine, phosgene, and mustard gas were among the chemicals used, resulting in nearly 100,000 deaths and over one million casualties globally. Since World War I, there have been significant developments, manufacture, and stockpiling of chemical weapons, with an estimated 25 states developing chemical weapons capabilities by the 1970s and 1980s.
Today, the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) is responsible for implementing the provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) and ensuring the destruction of chemical weapons. As of 2023, the OPCW has confirmed that 100% of the chemical weapons stockpiles declared by States Parties to the CWC have been verifiably destroyed.
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Biological warfare
The use of biological weapons has a long history, dating back to antiquity. For example, the Assyrians poisoned enemy wells with the fungus ergot, and Scythian archers dipped their arrows in excrement and cadavers, infecting victims with tetanus. In the Second World War, the Japanese army poisoned more than 1,000 water wells in Chinese villages to study cholera and typhus outbreaks, resulting in the deliberate release of pathogens or toxins that caused tens of thousands of deaths.
During the Cold War, there were several instances of alleged biological warfare. Cuba frequently accused the USA of using biological warfare, and there were conspiracy theories that HIV was developed as a biological weapon by either the KGB or the CIA. While these allegations were never proven, they had significant impacts on political decisions and public perception.
Biological weapons can take many forms, including missiles, bombs, hand grenades, rockets, and spray-tanks fitted to aircraft, cars, trucks, and boats. They can also be delivered through more subtle means, such as food contamination, injection systems, and sprays. The development and use of biological weapons are not limited to nation-states, as individuals and non-governmental groups have also gained access to potentially dangerous microorganisms.
The challenge of containing biological warfare is significant, as the release of a suspicious disease can be difficult to distinguish from a naturally occurring outbreak. This requires coordination between various sectors and organizations to effectively detect, respond to, and mitigate the impact of biological attacks, whether deliberate or accidental.
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Siege warfare
Ancient Rome also made significant use of siege warfare, employing techniques such as tunnels, siege towers, battering rams, and throwing machines. Rome itself was besieged several times throughout its history, including by an army of Senones Gauls, which resulted in one of its most traumatic episodes. The Roman legionnaires were well-trained and equipped, utilising tight formations known as cohorts to advance as one across the battlefield.
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Rape and sexual violence
The use of rape and sexual violence as a tactic of war has been documented in various conflicts around the world, including in Sudan, Iraq, Syria, Ukraine, Haiti, Ethiopia, and Nepal. In Sudan, the Sudanese army attacks in Tabit resulted in the rape of at least 221 women and girls, according to a Human Rights Watch report. In Ukraine, the United Nations has verified more than one hundred cases of rape since the onset of the conflict, with the real number likely being much higher. In Ethiopia, Amnesty International reported that forces aligned with the Ethiopian government were employing "rape, gang rape, sexual slavery, sexual mutilation, and torture" as weapons of war against Tigrayan women and girls.
The impact of conflict-related sexual violence can be long-lasting, and there is a need for credible investigations into allegations of such violence and reparations for victims. The high levels of unpunished sexual violence in Nepal and Sri Lanka during their long internal conflicts demonstrate this impact. The use of sexual violence can also have a devastating impact on individuals, with victims often facing social repercussions and stigma that can lead to further trauma and hesitation to seek help.
Sexual violence as a tactic of war is often used to "instill fear, intimidate, subjugate, and control local populations," as described in a UN report on Sexual Violence in Port-au-Prince. It can also be used as a form of punishment and as a means to dehumanize the victims. In some cases, sexually enslaved women and girls have been used as suicide bombers and human shields, or as currency for compensating fighters, further perpetuating the violence and trauma inflicted on them.
The Rome Statute classifies rape and other forms of sexual violence as crimes against humanity and war crimes, depending on the context in which the crimes are committed. Under certain circumstances, sexual violence can also be categorized as a crime of torture or an act of genocide. While international law provides wide protections against sexual violence, enforcement of these provisions remains weak, as evident in the ongoing conflicts in Ukraine, Haiti, and Ethiopia, where sexual violence continues to be perpetrated.
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Frequently asked questions
Some brutal tactics used in warfare include:
- Genocide: The Mongols, for example, are known for their use of mass genocide, killing off entire populations and local communities.
- Chemical warfare: The use of chemical agents such as chlorine, mustard gas, and phosgene during World War I caused immense suffering and death.
- Siege: The Siege of Leningrad, lasting from 1941 to 1944, resulted in starvation and desperation, with reports of cannibalism among the inhabitants.
Terrorism is defined by the Federal Emergency Management Agency as "the use of force or violence against persons or property in violation of the criminal laws of the United States for purposes of intimidation, coercion, or ransom." Terrorists often employ tactics such as biological, chemical, nuclear, or explosive events to create fear and further their ideological, financial, religious, or political aims.
Terrorism and warfare are distinct in their methods, scope of violence, and targets. Terrorism often involves indiscriminate violence and targets non-combatants, violating human rights and personal security. Warfare, on the other hand, may involve more structured military tactics and strategies, but can still result in significant civilian casualties and brutal tactics that violate human rights.
