Eleanor Finch
Diplomacy is a key tool in international relations, and territorial acquisition is a significant aspect of diplomatic history. Nations have employed various methods to acquire new territories, including cession, purchase, and occupation. The United States, for example, has a history of territorial expansion through diplomatic means, such as the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which nearly doubled its landmass, and the acquisition of Alaska and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Other notable instances include the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican-American War and resulted in territorial gains for the U.S., and the leasing of the Panama Canal Zone from 1903 to 1999. While diplomacy can lead to territorial expansion, as seen in these examples, it is important to note that not all diplomatic efforts are successful, as evidenced by the failed attempts to acquire Cuba in the 19th century.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of land territories | 56 |
| Number of water territories | 19 |
| Number of land territories that are supply centers | 34 |
| Armies' capabilities | Holding, moving across, and attacking other units on land territories |
| Fleets' capabilities | Holding, moving on, and attacking other units on coastal and sea territories; transporting armies across the sea |
| Territorial acquisition methods | Cession, purchase, and occupation |
| Number of US territories purchased | 7 |
| Number of US territories ceded | 10 |
| Number of US territories obtained through occupation | 10 |
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What You'll Learn
- Cession: a transfer of land formally agreed upon by both parties, usually by treaty
- Purchase: a type of cession where the acquiring nation compensates the ceding country financially
- Occupation: appropriation of an area that lacks control by another sovereign
- Treaties: the exchange of territory with sovereign nations, initiated by the president
- Filibustering: armed expeditions by private citizens to acquire territorial possessions
Cession: a transfer of land formally agreed upon by both parties, usually by treaty
Cession is the voluntary transfer of land formally agreed upon by both the acquiring and ceding parties, typically through a treaty. It is distinct from annexation, which involves the forcible seizure of property. In the context of international law, cession often refers to the transfer of land between nations through a treaty.
The history of the United States provides several examples of territorial acquisitions through cession. One notable instance is the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which nearly doubled the landmass of the original 13 states. This acquisition was made through a treaty with France, which ceded Louisiana to the United States. Similarly, in 1819, Spain ceded East and West Florida to the United States through a treaty.
Another example of cession is the transfer of Hong Kong and Kowloon. Following the First Opium War (1839-1842) and the Second Opium War (1856-1860), the Qing dynasty government of China ceded Hong Kong and Kowloon to the United Kingdom through the Treaty of Nanking and the Convention of Peking, respectively.
In addition to international cessions, there have also been instances of territorial transfers within the same country. For example, in 1790, the US states of Maryland and Virginia ceded land to form the District of Columbia, as outlined in the US Constitution. The portion contributed by Virginia was returned in 1847 through a process known as "retrocession".
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Purchase: a type of cession where the acquiring nation compensates the ceding country financially
The acquisition of territories through diplomacy can occur through cession, purchase, or occupation. Purchase, in this context, refers to a type of cession where the acquiring nation compensates the ceding country financially for the transfer of territory. This method of acquisition has been employed by the United States in its expansion, with notable examples including:
The Louisiana Purchase
In 1803, the United States made its first and largest territorial acquisition by purchasing Louisiana for $10 million. This acquisition nearly doubled the landmass of the original 13 states.
Alaska
The United States acquired Alaska from Russia for $12 per square mile, making it the cheapest acquisition by purchase.
The U.S. Virgin Islands
The acquisition of the U.S. Virgin Islands is the most expensive purchase by the United States, costing $183,824 per square mile.
The Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands, and Marshall Islands
In 1947, the United States acquired these islands as territorial purchases, marking its most recent acquisitions as of August 2021.
It is important to note that the process of acquiring territories through purchase involves formal agreements and treaties between the acquiring and ceding nations. The acquiring nation provides financial compensation to the ceding country in exchange for the transfer of territorial control.
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Occupation: appropriation of an area that lacks control by another sovereign
The acquisition of territories through diplomacy can take several forms, including cession, purchase, and occupation. Occupation refers specifically to the appropriation of an area that lacks control by another sovereign power. In other words, it is the act of a state exercising effective control over a territory to which it has no sovereign title, and without the consent of the sovereign.
According to Article 42 of The Hague Regulations of 1907:
> Territory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army. The occupation extends only to the territory where such authority has been established and can be exercised.
Under international humanitarian law (IHL), an occupying power does not acquire sovereignty over the occupied territory. Instead, it is required to respect the existing laws and institutions of the occupied territory as much as possible.
The United States, for example, has acquired new territories through occupation, in addition to cession and purchase. The US occupied nearly 100 islands under the Guano Islands Act of 1856, which aimed to make guano (dried sea bird excrement) easier to mine for use as fertiliser. The US's most recent territorial acquisitions, as of August 2021, were the Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands, and Marshall Islands in 1947. These, along with the US's other occupied territories, were primarily small islands in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea.
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Treaties: the exchange of territory with sovereign nations, initiated by the president
Treaties are a crucial mechanism for the exchange of territory between sovereign nations, with the process typically initiated by the president of the acquiring nation. The president's proposal is then subject to the advice and consent of a supermajority of two-thirds of the Senate. This process has been employed by the United States to acquire new territories, with the country's history marked by expansionist endeavours.
One notable instance of territorial acquisition through diplomacy is the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which nearly doubled the landmass of the original 13 states. This purchase was made from France for $10 million and exemplifies the role of treaties in facilitating the transfer of territory between nations.
The United States has also employed other methods to acquire territories, including cession and occupation. Cession refers to the formal transfer of land agreed upon by the acquiring and ceding states, often through a treaty. A notable example of cession is the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which ended the Mexican-American War and resulted in the expansion of US territory.
Occupation, on the other hand, involves the appropriation of an area that lacks supreme control by another sovereign nation. This method was utilised by the US to acquire small islands in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, particularly through the Guano Islands Act of 1856. These acquisitions were driven by the desire to expand US influence and ensure the preservation of slavery in newly acquired territories.
While the US has successfully expanded its territories through diplomatic means, there have also been failed attempts. For example, during the mid-19th century, the US sought to purchase Cuba from Spain, as outlined in the Ostend Manifesto. However, growing anti-slavery sentiments and Spain's determination to retain Cuba ultimately thwarted these efforts.
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Filibustering: armed expeditions by private citizens to acquire territorial possessions
Between the Mexican-American War and the Civil War, the United States government attempted to acquire territorial possessions in Central America and the Caribbean. During this time, private citizens, known as "filibusterers", also organised armed expeditions to various places in Mexico, Central America, and Cuba. These private citizens were often motivated by the desire to expand the territory where slavery could continue to grow and expand.
One such filibusterer was the Venezuelan-born Cuban resident, Narciso López. López, a wealthy Cuban slave owner, was concerned about the shaky Spanish rule over the island. Fearing that Spain would give in to British pressure to abolish slavery in Cuba, López organised several failed expeditions to liberate Cuba from Spanish rule. The last of these expeditions resulted in his capture and execution in Havana in 1851.
López's expeditions inspired other filibusterers to attempt to acquire Cuba from Spain. In 1854, U.S. Minister Pierre Soulé met with other U.S. Ministers to draft the Ostend Manifesto, which outlined U.S. reasons for attempting to purchase Cuba. However, once the documents were publicly released, they caused embarrassment for the Pierce Administration, and the Spanish Government began to take countermeasures against U.S. interests in Cuba.
Filibustering expeditions were often met with local antagonism and were ultimately unsuccessful in acquiring permanent and significant territorial gains for the United States. The growing anti-slavery sentiment in the northern United States and Spanish determination to hold on to Cuba eventually forced U.S. leaders to end their attempts to acquire the island.
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Frequently asked questions
The US has acquired new territories through cession, purchase, and occupation.
Cession is a transfer of land that is formally agreed upon by the acquiring and ceding state, usually by treaty.
The Louisiana Purchase in 1803 for $10 million.
The Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands, and Marshall Islands, which became US territories in 1947.
