Isotopes: Hunting For Identical Atomic Twins

Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. This means that isotopes have the same atomic number, but different mass numbers. For example, carbon has three isotopes: carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14. Each of these isotopes has 6 protons, but carbon-12 has 6 neutrons, carbon-13 has 7 neutrons, and carbon-14 has 8 neutrons. Another example is the pair of atoms (Mn^55, Mn^54) and (Sn^118_50, Sn^120_50), which are isotopes of each other. Isotopes have nearly identical chemical and physical properties, but their nuclear properties can vary. They can be stable or unstable (radioactive), and are used in various applications, including research, medicine, and environmental studies.

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Isotopes have the same atomic number but different mass numbers

Isotopes are a type of atom and the smallest unit of matter that retains all the chemical properties of an element. They are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons (i.e. the same atomic number, "Z") but a different number of neutrons, resulting in varying mass numbers ("A"). For example, hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes: 1H, 2H, and 3H. Hydrogen-1, also known as protium, is the most common hydrogen isotope, accounting for 99.98% of hydrogen atoms, and contains no neutrons. Hydrogen-2 and Hydrogen-3, on the other hand, contain one and two neutrons, respectively, and are often artificially synthesized.

The atomic number, denoted by "Z," is determined by the number of protons in an atom's nucleus and is equal to the number of electrons in a neutral (non-ionized) atom. Each atomic number corresponds to a specific element. For instance, strontium always has 38 protons, while rubidium has 37. The mass number, represented by "A," is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus. Isotopes of the same element will have distinct mass numbers due to their varying neutron counts. For example, carbon has three isotopes: carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14, with mass numbers of 12, 13, and 14, respectively.

The chemical and physical properties of isotopes of the same element are nearly identical, but their nuclear properties differ. Some isotopes are referred to as stable, meaning their nuclear composition remains unchanged over time. Most naturally occurring isotopes fall into this category. However, isotopes can also be radioactive, with their nuclei having a probability of spontaneously changing through a process known as radioactive decay. During this decay, a "parent" isotope transforms into a "daughter" isotope, which may be of a different element.

The study and application of isotopes have led to numerous advancements in various fields. For example, stable isotopes like nitrogen-15 (15N) are used in agriculture to track the effectiveness of nitrogen fertiliser uptake by crops. In environmental studies, stable isotopes of hydrogen are used to determine the age and origin of water sources, a technique known as isotope hydrology. Additionally, radioisotopes, which are unstable isotopes that emit radiation, find applications in medicine, industry, and environmental tracing. For instance, radioisotopes are used in radiopharmaceutical sciences to manage cancer and chronic diseases through targeted radiation therapy.

The number of protons determines the element

Atoms are composed of a cloud of electrons surrounding a dense nucleus that contains protons and neutrons. The number of protons in an atom determines its identity, i.e., what element it is. For example, an atom with only one proton is identified as a hydrogen atom, while an atom with six protons is identified as a carbon atom. This number of protons is called the atomic number of the element, denoted by the letter Z. Each element has a unique atomic number, and no two elements have the same number of protons in their atoms.

The number of protons can be found on the Periodic Table of Elements, and it is always the same for a specific element. The atomic number can be determined by the chemical symbol of the element. For example, a strontium nucleus always has 38 protons, and a rubidium nucleus always has 37. The number of neutrons in an atom can vary, and this is what distinguishes isotopes of an element. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons, so their mass number, denoted by the letter A, varies. For example, hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes: 1H, 2H, and 3H, which have zero, one, and two neutrons, respectively.

The chemical properties of an element are determined by the electrons surrounding the nucleus, which also determine how the atom will react with its environment. Electrons are negatively charged, while protons are positively charged, and neutrons are uncharged. Electrons are found in clouds at specific distances from the nucleus, and their overall shape depends on the number of electrons in the atom. These clouds are called shells, and the higher the atomic number, the more shells and electrons an atom will have. The shells become more complex as the number of electrons increases.

Isotopes have nearly identical chemical and physical properties, but their nuclear properties vary. Some isotopes are stable, meaning their nuclear makeup does not change over time, while others are unstable and can emit radiation. These unstable isotopes are called radioisotopes, and they have many practical applications in medicine, industry, and agriculture. For example, radioisotopes are used to manage cancer and chronic diseases, and stable isotopes are used to study land, humans, animals, insects, and plants.

Isotopes can be stable or unstable (radioactive)

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons, which means their mass number varies. For example, hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes: 1H, 2H, and 3H.

Some isotopes are stable, meaning their nuclear makeup remains unchanged over time and they do not emit radiation. The first 80 elements on the periodic table have stable isotopes, and they are used in environmental studies, nutrition assessments, forensics, and agriculture. For example, stable isotopes of hydrogen are used to determine the age and origin of water. Stable isotopes of nitrogen are used to track how effectively crops take up fertiliser.

On the other hand, unstable isotopes, also known as radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes, have a surplus of energy that they emit in the form of radiation. This process is called radioactive decay, during which an unstable ""parent" isotope transforms into a "daughter" isotope. Radioisotopes are used in medicine, industry, agriculture, radiopharmaceutical sciences, environmental tracing, and biological studies. For example, radioisotopes are used in cancer treatment and to image tumours.

While some elements have no stable isotopes and are therefore radioactive, other elements have both stable and unstable isotopes. Strontium, for example, has four stable isotopes (Sr-84, Sr-86, Sr-87, and Sr-88) and one unstable isotope (Sr-82).

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Isotopes are used in medicine, industry, agriculture, and forensics

Isotopes are variants of chemical elements that are produced through the natural decay of atoms. They have numerous applications across medicine, industry, agriculture, and forensics.

Medicine

Radioisotopes are used in nuclear medicine and radiotherapy for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Nuclear medicine uses small amounts of radioisotopes to provide information about a person's body, specific organs, biological processes, and diseases. For example, a radioisotope such as technetium-99m can be taken orally, injected, or inhaled into the body, and its distribution can be tracked through imaging techniques such as SPECT or PET. Another example is the use of a short-lived positron-emitting radioactive isotope injected into the body on a carrier molecule like glucose to detect cancers and examine metabolic activity.

Industry

Radioisotopes are also used in industrial applications to improve productivity and gather unique insights. Industrial radiography employs gamma sources to conduct stress testing and check the structural integrity of objects, such as aeroplane jet engine turbines. Additionally, radioisotopes are used for gauging, measuring levels of liquids inside containers, and determining the thickness of materials.

Agriculture

Isotopes are used in agriculture to trace contaminants in biological systems and understand metabolic processes in animals.

Forensics

Isotope analysis plays a crucial role in forensic anthropology, aiding in the investigation of human tissues and bodily fluids. Different types of tissues provide snapshots of different time periods in a person's life. For example, teeth can reveal information about childhood diet and residence, while bones offer insights into diet and location for the past 10-20 years. Hair and nails are particularly useful in forensic investigations as they can provide information about an individual's life history just prior to death. Isotope analysis of strontium (Sr) and lead (Pb) can also be helpful in forensic provenancing by narrowing down potential sources.

Isotopes are denoted by the name or symbol of the element, followed by a hyphen and the mass number

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons, which means their mass number, denoted by the letter "A", varies. For example, hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes: 1H, 2H, and 3H. The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number and is denoted by the letter "Z". The mass number, on the other hand, is the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom.

The atomic number "Z" is usually indicated with a subscript to the left of the chemical symbol "E", while the mass number "A" is indicated with a superscript. However, since the atomic number can always be determined by the chemical symbol, it is common practice to only state the mass number. For example, the isotope of carbon with a mass number of 14 can be written as 14C or C-14, but it is often simply referred to as "carbon-14".

The letter "m" immediately following the mass number indicates a metastable state of the atomic nucleus, which is a stable state other than the isotope's lowest-energy ground state. For example, technetium-99m indicates a metastable state of the technetium isotope.

Isotopes of the same element have nearly identical chemical and physical properties, but their nuclear properties can vary. Some isotopes are stable, meaning their nuclear makeup does not change over time, while others are unstable and can undergo radioactive decay, emitting radiation and transforming into a daughter isotope, possibly of a different element. These unstable isotopes are called radioisotopes.

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