Isabella Carter
The French Revolution, which lasted from 1789 to 1799, was a period of radical social, economic, financial, and political upheaval in France. It culminated in the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the French First Republic, followed by the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte and the Napoleonic era. The Revolution was driven by various factors, including resistance to reform by the ruling elite, popular demands for liberal political reforms and constitutional monarchy, and economic crises. During this tumultuous period, France witnessed multiple shifts in government, constitutional reforms, and violent episodes such as the Reign of Terror. The French people's desire for reform and their commitment to principles such as liberty, equality, and fraternity shaped the country's trajectory, leading to significant changes in the nation's political landscape and ideology.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date | 4 October 1958 |
| Basis | The Rights of Man and the principles of national sovereignty as defined by the Declaration of 1789, confirmed and complemented by the Preamble to the Constitution of 1946, and to the rights and duties as defined in the Charter for the Environment of 2004 |
| Referendum | Can be held upon the initiative of one-fifth of the members of Parliament, supported by one-tenth of the voters enrolled on the electoral lists |
| Acts of Parliament | The President of the Republic shall promulgate Acts of Parliament within fifteen days following the final passage of an Act |
| State of Siege | Shall be decreed in the Council of Ministers and may be extended after 12 days by Parliament |
| Provisions | May be amended by decree issued after consultation with the Conseil d'État |
| Government Measures | May ask Parliament for authorization to take measures by Ordinance for a limited period |
| Legislative Assembly | Created France's first bicameral legislature |
| Executive Power | Held by a five-member Directory appointed by Parliament |
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What You'll Learn
The French Revolution
In the fall of 1786, Louis XVI, facing financial difficulties, proposed a reform package that included a universal land tax from which the aristocracy would no longer be exempt. This proposal sparked resistance from the aristocratic classes, who enjoyed traditional privileges. In an attempt to address these issues and prevent an aristocratic revolt, the king summoned the Estates General, an assembly representing the clergy, nobility, and middle class, for the first time since 1614. The meeting was scheduled for May 5, 1789, and delegates from each estate were tasked with compiling lists of grievances to present to the king.
On June 17, 1789, the Third Estate, comprising the non-aristocratic middle class, formally adopted the name National Assembly, seeking to reform the French national government. Three days later, they took the Tennis Court Oath, vowing to write a new constitution. This period, from October 1789 to spring 1791, was marked by relative tranquility and the enactment of significant legislative reforms. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, passed in August 1789, became a fundamental document in the history of human and civil rights, establishing the basis for a nation of free and equal individuals protected by law.
However, tensions escalated in 1791, with the unsuccessful escape of the royal family from Paris during the Flight to Varennes, undermining the credibility of the king as a constitutional monarch. This led to the execution of Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette. The Constitution of 1791, France's first written constitution, established a constitutional monarchy with limited political democratization, as the king retained royal veto power and the ability to appoint ministers. This compromise failed to satisfy radical revolutionaries like Maximilien de Robespierre, who advocated for a more republican form of government.
In April 1792, the newly elected Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria and Prussia, believing that French émigrés were building counterrevolutionary alliances in those countries. They also sought to spread their revolutionary ideals across Europe. In August 1792, a group of insurgents led by extremist Jacobins arrested the king, marking a radical turn in the political crisis. The following year, the 1793 Constitution was drafted, including radical reforms such as universal male suffrage. However, normal legal processes were suspended, and the Committee of Public Safety, dominated by Robespierre's Jacobins, seized control, leading to the Reign of Terror.
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The Constitution of 1791
The constitution retained the monarchy, but sovereignty effectively resided in the Legislative Assembly, which was elected by a system of indirect voting. The franchise was restricted to "active citizens" who paid a minimal sum in taxes, with about two-thirds of adult men having the right to vote for electors and to choose certain local officials directly. This distinction between active and passive citizens was intolerable to radical deputies such as Maximilien Robespierre, who could never be reconciled with the Constitution of 1791.
The Constitutional Committee proposed a bicameral legislature, but this was defeated in favour of a single house. The next day, they proposed an absolute veto, but this was also defeated in favour of a suspensive veto, which could be overridden by three consecutive legislatures. The Assembly, as constitution-framers, were afraid that if only representatives governed France, it would be ruled by their self-interest. Therefore, the king was allowed a suspensive veto to balance out the interests of the people. However, representative democracy weakened the king's executive authority.
The National Assembly was the legislative body, the king and royal ministers made up the executive branch, and the judiciary was independent of the other two branches. On a local level, the previous feudal geographic divisions were formally abolished, and the territory of the French state was divided into several administrative units, or "Départements".
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The National Assembly
> "A military force surrounds the assembly! Where are the enemies of the nation? I demand, investing yourselves with your legislative power, you inclose yourselves within the religion of your oath. It does not permit you to separate till you have formed a constitution."
During the French Revolution, the National Assembly played a key role in challenging the monarchy and advocating for reforms. They passed decrees confiscating émigré property and threatening them with the death penalty, as well as measures against non-juring priests. The Assembly also approved a decree giving refractory clergy an ultimatum to comply with the Civil Constitution or face charges of 'conspiracy against the nation'. These actions contributed to the portrayal of King Louis XVI as opposed to reform, ultimately leading to his execution in January 1793.
Today, the National Assembly is the lower house of the French bicameral legislature, with the upper house being the Senate. There are 577 deputies, each elected by a single-member constituency, and the assembly's term is five years. The National Assembly's agenda is mostly decided by the Government, although it can also enforce its own agenda, as guaranteed by Article 48 of the Constitution.
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The Reign of Terror
The urban workers of France, known as the sans-culottes, contributed to the overall instability of the country during this period. They violently demonstrated, pushing their demands and creating constant pressure for the Montagnards, who supported radical violence and the interests of the poor, to enact reform. The Montagnards gained control of the National Convention and began demanding radical measures. The sans-culottes also agitated leaders to inflict punishments on those who opposed the interests of the poor.
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The Directory
The Constitution of 1795 created a bicameral legislature consisting of the Council of Five Hundred (lower house) and the Council of Ancients (upper house). The Council of Five Hundred proposed a list of candidates, from which the Council of Ancients chose the five directors who jointly held executive power. The members of the upper house, the Council of Ancients, were chosen by lot from among all the deputies. The legislature had a term of three years, with one-third of the members renewed every year. The Ancients could veto laws proposed by the Council of Five Hundred but could not initiate new laws.
In 1797, the first elections were held to replace the original members of the Directory and the councils. However, the elections showed an overwhelming swing in favour of Royalists, and the Directory responded by ignoring the results and using the army to seize back control. This further solidified the old Directory's power within the government. By 1799, the Directory had lost the support of all political factions, and Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup on 9–10 November 1799, known as the Coup of 18 Brumaire, which ended the Directory and established the Consulate with Bonaparte as First Consul.
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Frequently asked questions
The Constitution of 1791 was the first written constitution of France.
The Constitution of 1791 established a constitutional monarchy in which the king had royal veto power and the ability to appoint ministers.
Some key events leading up to the French Revolution include:
- The Women's March on Versailles, fuelled by rising food prices and scarcity, which was one of the earliest and most significant events.
- The Tennis Court Oath, taken by members of the Third Estate on 20 June 1789, in which they vowed to create a new constitution.
- The National Constituent Assembly, formed by members of the Third Estate on 17 June 1789, with the aim to reform the French national government.
- The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, passed in August 1789, which became a fundamental document in the history of human and civil rights.
The French Revolution resulted in the replacement of the monarchy with the French First Republic and the execution of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. It also led to significant political changes, including the establishment of the Committee of Public Safety, which was dominated by radical Jacobins led by Maximilien Robespierre. The Revolution aimed to address social, economic, financial, and political crises in France at the time.
