Eleanor Finch
The concept of objects is a complex and multifaceted topic that has been explored by philosophers, programmers, and scientists alike. In philosophy, the idea of objects ranges from discussions on monism, which posits that only one object—the world—exists, to nihilism, which challenges the very concept of objects in characterizing reality. In programming, objects are fundamental, with models like Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) aiming to simplify complex inventions by creating abstract objects that are easier to understand and manipulate. These objects can represent anything from physical entities like a human being to small computer programs. The quantity and constitution of objects are integral to these discussions, as they delve into the very nature of objects and their relationships. For instance, in OOP, objects are defined by their properties, methods, and relationships with other objects, leading to considerations of how many objects exist and what they are made of. Similarly, in science, the establishment of quantitative structures and relationships is essential, particularly in fields like physics, chemistry, and biology, where abstract qualities are transformed into measurable quantities. Thus, the exploration of the quantity and constitution of objects spans multiple disciplines, each offering unique insights into the nature and role of objects in our understanding of the world.
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What You'll Learn
Monism and Nihilism
Monism, nihilism, and pluralism are all theses of numerical predication, meaning they are concerned with the quantity and constitution of objects. Monism holds that, ultimately, there is only one substance or reality, whereas pluralism holds that there are many, and nihilism holds that there are none.
Monism can be divided into three broad categories: idealist monism, neutral monism, and material monism. Idealist monism, or mentalistic monism, holds that only the mind or spirit exists. Neutral monism holds that one sort of thing fundamentally exists, to which both the mental and the physical can be reduced. Material monism, or physicalism, holds that the material world is primary, and consciousness arises through interaction with the material world.
Nihilism negates the categories of substances, properties, concrete objects, etc. put forward by monism and pluralism. One argument for nihilism is that the concept of an object has no place in a characterization of reality. For example, there might just be "stuff" everywhere, but no objects. Another argument is that monist eternalism is factually false. However, this critique has become less effective due to increasing skepticism about the authority of science and the view that "all beliefs are equally valid."
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Organicism
The roots of organicism can be traced back to Ancient Athens in the 4th century BC, with philosophers like Plato regarding the universe as an intelligent, almost sentient entity. Immanuel Kant, in the 18th century, further developed this idea by highlighting the interconnectedness of organisms and their parts, along with the concept of circular causality. Organicism found favour during the German Romanticism intellectual movement, with Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling considering it a significant principle in the emerging field of biological studies.
In contemporary biology, organicism takes on a distinct form. It emphasizes the self-organizing properties and overall organization of living systems rather than solely focusing on their biological components. This approach aligns with the belief that the behaviour of larger organized systems cannot be fully explained by examining their smallest parts in isolation. This rejection of mechanism and reductionism sets organicism apart, as it acknowledges the complexity that arises from the interaction and organization of elements within a system.
French zoologist Yves Delage, in his work "L'Hérédité Et Les Grands Problèmes de la Biologie Générale", offers a profound description of organicism. He portrays life, the form of the body, and the characteristics of its parts as emerging from the reciprocal interplay or struggle of all its elements. This dynamic perspective highlights how each element influences and modifies others, ultimately contributing to the final result, akin to a pre-established harmony.
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Object-oriented programming
The idea of "objects" in programming started with the artificial intelligence group at MIT in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Here, "object" referred to LISP atoms with identified properties (attributes). Another early example was Sketchpad, created by Ivan Sutherland at MIT between 1960 and 1961. In the glossary of his technical report, Sutherland defined terms like "object" and "instance" (with the class concept covered by "master" or "definition"), albeit specialised to graphical interaction.
Simula, developed in Norway between 1961 and 1967, is generally accepted as being the first language with the primary features and framework of an object-oriented language. Simula introduced essential object-oriented ideas, such as classes, inheritance, and dynamic binding. Influenced by both MIT and Simula, Alan Kay began developing his own ideas in 1966. He went on to create Smalltalk, an influential object-oriented programming language.
In the late 1970s and 1980s, object-oriented programming rose to prominence. The Flavors object-oriented Lisp was developed starting in 1979, introducing multiple inheritance and mixins. In 1986, the first Conference on Object-Oriented Programming, Systems, Languages, and Applications (OOPSLA) was attended by 1,000 people. This conference marked the beginning of efforts to consolidate Lisp object systems, eventually resulting in the Common Lisp Object System.
In OOP, the first step is to collect all the objects a programmer wants to manipulate and identify how they relate to each other – an exercise known as data modelling. Examples of objects include physical entities, such as a human being, described by properties like name and address, and small computer programs, such as widgets. Once an object is known, it is labelled with a class of objects that defines the kind of data it contains and any logic sequences that can manipulate it. Each distinct logic sequence is known as a method. Objects can communicate with well-defined interfaces called messages.
OOP focuses on the objects that developers want to manipulate rather than the logic required to manipulate them. This approach to programming is well suited for software that is large, complex and actively updated or maintained. This includes programs for manufacturing and design, as well as mobile applications. For example, OOP can be used for manufacturing system simulation software. The organisation of an object-oriented program also makes the method beneficial for collaborative development, where projects are divided into groups. Additional benefits of OOP include code reusability, scalability and efficiency.
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Nominalism
The term "nominalism" originates from the Latin "nomen", meaning "name". This philosophy asserts that there are no entities of certain sorts, and typically denies the existence of universals or abstract entities. It is an exclusionary thesis in ontology, posing a challenge to explain phenomena that anti-nominalist theories attribute to universals or abstract entities. For instance, nominalists must explain how things can be similar without sharing universals and how linguistic meaning can exist without propositions.
There are two main variations of nominalism. The first denies the existence of universals, which can be exemplified by multiple particular things such as strength or humanity. The second variation specifically refutes the existence of abstract objects, which are objects that do not exist in space and time. Some versions of nominalism acknowledge certain particulars as abstract entities, such as numbers, while others recognise concrete entities that exist in space and time, like pillars or bananas.
In modern philosophy, nominalism was revived by Thomas Hobbes and Pierre Gassendi, and has been defended by various contemporary analytic philosophers. Nominalism has been argued to have significantly influenced the conception of modernity and contemporaneity.
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Quantifiers and quantification
The concept of quantity is fundamental in modern science, especially in the physical sciences, where quantitative properties are essential for understanding the behaviour of material entities. Quantification is the act of assigning a numerical value to a quantity, allowing for comparison and measurement.
Quantities can be understood as either a multitude or a magnitude. A multitude is a collection of discrete objects that can be counted, such as apples. A magnitude, on the other hand, is something that can be measured and is inherently divisible, like length or time.
In mathematics, the concept of quantity has a long history, dating back to Aristotle and earlier. Aristotle classified quantity into two types: plurality and magnitude. A plurality is that which is divisible into non-continuous parts, while a magnitude is divisible into continuous parts. For example, an army is a plurality, as it consists of individual soldiers, while length is a magnitude that can be divided into smaller lengths.
Modern science has further distinguished between intensive and extensive quantities. Intensive quantities, such as temperature or energy, do not depend on the size or extent of the object or system being measured. In contrast, extensive quantities, such as mass or volume, are dependent on the size or extent of the object or system.
Quantification is a critical process in science, as it allows for the establishment of quantitative structures and relationships between different quantities. For example, in physics, fundamental quantities such as space (length, breadth, and depth), time, mass, force, temperature, energy, and quanta are defined and measured. These quantities can then be compared and related to each other, leading to a deeper understanding of the natural world.
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