The Race For Democracy: Which Middle East Country Led?

Syria was the first country in the Middle East to have a constitution. The First Syrian Republic, officially the Syrian Republic, was formed in 1930 as a component of the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon, succeeding the State of Syria. The project of a new constitution was discussed by a Constituent Assembly elected in April 1928, and the country was declared a republic on 22 May 1930, with a new constitution promulgated by the French High Commissioner.

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The Constitution of Medina

Many historians consider the Constitution of Medina to be the first document in history to establish religious freedom as a right. It has been highly influential among contemporary Muslims, celebrated for its religious pluralism, unique character, and the belief that God is its ultimate source. However, some historians have expressed skepticism about certain aspects of the Constitution, including the identity of participants, the quantity of documents, and the precise timing of its creation.

The Middle East's oil wealth

The first Middle Eastern country to adopt a constitution was the Ottoman Empire in 1876, marking the beginning of the First Constitutional Era in the Empire. This constitution established the Ottoman Parliament and was influenced by the desire to import a Western model of constitutional government, civil law, and secular education.

Now, onto the topic of the Middle East's oil wealth:

The discovery of oil in the early 20th century had a profound impact on the Middle East, with the region possessing the world's largest untapped reserves of crude oil, the most important commodity at the time. Oil was first discovered in Persia (modern-day Iran) in 1908, followed by Saudi Arabia in 1938, and other Gulf states. This discovery led to increased Western interest in the region, particularly from Britain and the United States, as they sought to exploit the valuable oil reserves. The rise of the petroleum industry shaped the modern Middle East, bringing immense wealth to the kings and emirs of oil-producing countries.

The oil industry in the Middle East has been characterized by the dominance of Western oil companies, nationalization movements, and the emergence of organizations like OPEC to balance power towards the Arab oil states. Oil revenues have had a significant impact on the economies of the region, with countries like Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, and Kuwait experiencing economic booms. The successful economies in the Middle East are often those with oil wealth and low populations, such as Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates, where ruling emirs have allowed some political and social liberalization while retaining their power.

However, the "resource curse" concept suggests that countries with abundant natural resources tend to have less economic growth, less democracy, and worse development outcomes. This paradox has been observed in some Middle Eastern countries, where oil revenues have been squandered, and there is a reliance on religious legitimacy to maintain power. Additionally, oil wealth has been linked to the illegal funding of terrorism in certain regions.

The future of Middle Eastern economies reliant on oil revenues is uncertain, as the rise of alternative fuels and technological progress may drive down demand for oil. As a result, political leaders in the region will need to adapt to these changing economic and political landscapes.

The Arab Spring

Tunisia's Jasmine Revolution inspired similar attempts in other Arab countries, with Egypt being the next to fall. On 25 January 2011, the first coordinated mass protests were held in Tahrir Square in Cairo, leading to the resignation of Egyptian leader Hosni Mubarak. The protests then spread to Libya, where they escalated into the first civil war caused by the Arab Spring. In March 2011, NATO forces intervened against Gaddafi's army, helping the opposition capture most of the country by August. Gaddafi was killed on 20 October, but the country was left partitioned among various rebel militias, resulting in a weak central government.

The effects of the Arab Spring were felt throughout the region, with countries experiencing at least minor pro-democracy protests. Rulers in Algeria, Jordan, Morocco, and Oman offered various concessions, ranging from the dismissal of unpopular officials to constitutional changes, to head off the spread of protest movements. While the Arab Spring brought down regimes in some countries, it sparked mass violence in others, and some governments managed to delay trouble with a mix of repression, promises of reform, and state largesse. The long-term effects of the Arab Spring are yet to be seen, but it has undoubtedly shaped the course of the region's history, with protests and demands for change continuing in the years that followed.

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The end of European colonial control

The Middle East has long been considered the ""cradle of civilization", with the region's history dating back to ancient times. The geopolitical importance of the area has been recognised and fought over for millennia. The discovery of oil in the region in the early 20th century, first in Persia (1908) and then in Saudi Arabia (1938) and other Gulf states, further heightened Western interest in the region.

During the 19th century, the British Empire gained control over the Persian Gulf, while the French colonial empire extended into Lebanon and Syria. Regional rulers sought modernisation to match the European powers. In the 1920s to 1940s, Syria and Egypt began to pursue independence, and during and after World War II, the British, French, and Soviets largely withdrew from the region. The Arab-Israeli conflict in Palestine culminated in the 1947 United Nations plan to partition Palestine, and amid Cold War tensions, pan-Arabism emerged in the region.

In the early 21st century, the Arab Spring revolutionary wave brought major protests and uprisings against several Middle Eastern and Arab-majority countries' governments. It began with the Tunisian revolution in December 2010, which forced the resignation of President Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali. This was followed by the Egyptian Revolution in January 2011, leading to the resignation of Hosni Mubarak the following month. In Bahrain, protests against the government in February and March 2011 were violently suppressed.

The Abrahamic religions

The Middle East has long been considered the "cradle of civilization" and the birthplace of many religions. The three major Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—originated in the Middle East and have played a significant role in shaping the region's culture, history, and society.

Judaism and Christianity emerged in the Levant in the 6th century BCE and the 1st century CE, respectively, while Islam emerged in Arabia in the 7th century CE. The term 'Abrahamic' emphasizes the important role that the figure of Abraham plays in these religions. Jews, Christians, and Muslims all look to their sacred texts to find the history of Abraham and interpret it through their own lens.

For Jews, the central text is the Hebrew Bible, which consists of the Torah (the first five books), the Prophets (Nevi'im), and the Writings (Ketuvim). Abraham's story is prominently featured in Genesis, the first book of the Torah, and is referred to repeatedly throughout the Hebrew Bible. Christians also recognize the Hebrew Bible as the Old Testament, which is followed by the New Testament detailing the life of Jesus Christ. In the Christian context, the Letters of St. Paul are particularly important for understanding the figure of Abraham. Muslims engage with the figure of Abraham/Ibrāhīm in the Quran and the Hadith, which transmits the sayings and actions of Prophet Muhammad.

While the three Abrahamic religions share doctrinal, historical, and geographic overlaps, there are also significant differences in their interpretations of Abraham and other religious figures, reflecting the diverse beliefs and customs among their followers. Despite attempts at interfaith dialogue, the history of relations between these religions has been tumultuous, with centuries of bitter conflict and persecution.

Today, Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, with at least 90% of the population in every Middle Eastern country adhering to the faith, except for Israel, Lebanon, and Cyprus, which have significant religious diversity. Christianity and Judaism are also well-represented in the region, with Christian communities comprising 78% of Cyprus's population, 40.5% of Lebanon's population, and 20% of Egypt's population, and Judaism being the majority religion in Israel.

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