Malcolm Rivera
The best electoral constitution system is a highly subjective topic that depends on various factors and perspectives. Different countries have unique contexts, histories, and preferences that influence their choice of electoral systems. While some systems are more commonly used, such as First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) or proportional representation, each country may have its own variations and regulations, such as those regarding voter registration, polling places, and voting methods. The effectiveness of an electoral system can be evaluated based on criteria such as fairness, representation, and the ability to reflect the popularity of factions in parliament accurately. Countries like Switzerland, New Zealand, Denmark, and Ireland are often ranked highly in terms of personal and economic freedom, and their use of proportional representation contributes to their democratic reputation. However, it's important to remember that no electoral system is perfect, and reforms or adjustments may be proposed to address perceived shortcomings or changing societal needs.
| Characteristics | Values | |
|---|---|---|
| Participatory rules | Determining candidate nomination, voter registration, location of polling places, availability of online, postal, and absentee voting | |
| Characteristics | Values | |
| --- | --- | |
| Participatory rules | Determining candidate nomination, voter registration, location of polling places, availability of online, postal, and absentee voting | |
| Voting devices | Paper ballots, machine voting, open ballot systems | |
| Suffrage | Most countries have universal suffrage, but the minimum voting age varies from 16 to 21 | |
| Disenfranchisement | Reasons include imprisonment, bankruptcy, or certain criminal convictions | |
| Single winner vs. multiple winners | Some systems elect a single winner (e.g., president), while others elect multiple winners (e.g., members of parliament) | |
| Constituency representation | Areas may be divided into constituencies with one or more representatives, or the electorate may vote as a single unit | |
| Candidate selection | Voters may vote directly for an individual candidate or a list of candidates from a political party or alliance | |
| Instant-runoff voting | Used in some cities, but can be complex and lead to lower voter satisfaction if results differ from first-past-the-post | |
| Ranked-choice voting | Implemented in some U.S. states, but banned or constitutionally prohibited in others | |
| Contingent elections | In U.S. presidential elections without a majority winner, a contingent election is held by the House of Representatives, with multiple rounds until a candidate gains a majority | |
| Seat allocation | Some countries allocate seats separately for specific groups (e.g., women, youth) or based on general election results | |
| Proportional representation | Over 130 countries use proportional representation or a mixed system, aiming to match parliamentary faction strength with popularity | |
| First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) | Used in the UK and some former British colonies; the candidate with the most votes wins | |
| Single Transferable Vote (STV) | Used in Ireland and Malta, providing maximum voter choice; votes can be transferred to the next choice if needed |
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What You'll Learn
Proportional representation
PR systems aim to provide equal representation for votes, but the approaches to achieving this differ. Party-list PR is the most commonly used version of proportional representation. Voters cast votes for parties, and each party is allocated seats based on its party share. Some party-list PR systems use overall country-wide vote counts, while others count vote shares in separate parts of the country and allocate seats accordingly.
PR systems are more resistant to gerrymandering and other forms of manipulation than winner-take-all systems, as multi-winner districts are too difficult to gerrymander. They also tend to improve minority representation by allowing groups to win representation in proportion to their numbers. Additionally, PR systems encourage parties to pursue broadly appealing policies in order to win as many votes as possible.
PR systems are used in both countries with presidential systems and those with parliamentary systems. Party-list PR is used in 85 countries, while mixed-member PR is used in 7 countries. However, PR systems can reduce the representation of minorities and may not always lead to the formation of legislative majorities.
While changing electoral systems is politically challenging, it is not impossible. Electoral systems are typically defined by a country's constitution or electoral laws and can vary widely, with many countries adopting unique approaches to suit their specific needs.
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First-past-the-post
FPTP has been criticised for encouraging "tactical voting" and for not always representing the diversity of voters' preferences. For example, in the UK, the Electoral Reform Society estimates that more than half the seats can be considered "safe seats", where the representative is unlikely to change unless there is a dramatic shift in voting behaviour. This can result in members of parliament being sheltered from accountability. FPTP also tends to favour larger parties and can make it difficult for smaller parties to gain representation. Duverger's Law, a principle in political science, states that constituencies that use FPTP methods will lead to two-party systems over time. This has been observed in the US, which is a majoritarian system with two dominant parties.
However, most countries with FPTP elections have multiparty legislatures, even if two parties are larger than the others. FPTP has been used in part to elect members of the British House of Commons since the Middle Ages, and while many former British colonies such as Australia and New Zealand have abandoned the system, it is still officially used in the majority of US states for most elections.
Some cities that have adopted instant-runoff voting (a form of ranked-choice voting) have returned to FPTP due to concerns about the complexity of the former system. In the UK, local elections used instant-runoff voting before 2022 but returned to FPTP. Ranked-choice voting has been banned in 10 US states, and voters in Missouri approved a ban on this system in 2024.
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Instant-runoff voting
In IRV, if a candidate wins a majority of first-preference votes, they are declared the winner. If no candidate wins a majority of first-preference votes, the candidate with the fewest first-preference votes is eliminated, and ballots that ranked the eliminated candidate as their first choice are then re-evaluated and counted as first-preference ballots for the voter's next-highest-ranked candidate. This process is repeated until one candidate has a majority of post-redistribution ballots. IRV is used in national elections in several countries, including Australia, Papua New Guinea, India, Ireland, and Sri Lanka.
IRV has several purported benefits. It promotes majority support, as voting continues until one candidate has the majority of votes, discouraging negative campaigning and providing more choice for voters. It also has notably high resistance to tactical voting.
However, IRV has also faced criticism. It may be vulnerable to strategic nomination and a paradoxical strategy of ranking a candidate higher to make them lose. It can also be complex, leading to lower voter satisfaction, and may require additional education and resources for implementation.
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Ranked-choice voting
RCV is also known as instant-runoff voting, as it eliminates the candidate with the fewest votes in each round of counting, with votes redistributed according to the rankings on individual ballots, until one candidate achieves a majority. This system is designed to more closely reflect the preferences of the electorate, by taking into account voters' second, third, and subsequent choices.
RCV has been implemented in various forms in several countries. In the United States, the states of Maine and Alaska have adopted RCV for all elections, while New York City used RCV for its Democratic primary for mayor. However, RCV has been banned in 10 US states, and voters in Missouri approved a ballot measure to ban the system. Outside of the US, RCV is used in local elections in New Zealand, and to elect local authorities in Scotland and Ireland.
RCV has its critics, however. Some argue that the system is too complex, and studies have shown that voter satisfaction with RCV can drop if the result differs from what would have been expected under a first-past-the-post system. For example, the UK abandoned RCV for local elections in 2022 due to concerns about its complexity.
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Single Transferable Vote
The Single Transferable Vote (STV) is a form of proportional representation that was created in Britain. Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, Malta, Scotland, Australia, and the United States (where it is referred to as 'ranked-choice voting in multi-member seats') use this system for some or all of their elections. In Australia, it is called 'Hare-Clark'.
In an STV system, voters rank candidates in order of preference on their ballot. The vote is initially allocated to the voter's first preference. A quota (the minimum number of votes needed to guarantee election) is calculated using either the Hare or Droop quota methods. Candidates who reach this quota are declared elected. The quota is also used to determine surplus votes, which are the number of votes received by successful candidates over and above the quota. These surplus votes are transferred to lower-ranked candidates in the voters' preferences, if possible, so they are not wasted by remaining with a candidate who does not need them. If seats remain open after the first count, any surplus votes are transferred, and this may generate the necessary winners. Least popular candidates may also be eliminated to generate winners.
STV is different from the single non-transferable vote election system, a semi-proportional system where candidates are not ranked and votes are not transferred. In STV, voters vote for candidates rather than for parties, and this allows voters to choose between candidates from the same or different parties. This means voters can elect MPs based on their individual abilities, and they can also vote for independent candidates without worrying about wasting their vote.
Evidence from Scotland and Ireland suggests that voters use STV in quite sophisticated ways. Constituencies are more natural, covering a whole town or county, and this creates a recognisable local link and gives voters a choice of representatives to talk to.
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Frequently asked questions
There is no definitive answer to this question as it is subjective and depends on various factors. However, some countries are often cited as having effective electoral systems, including Switzerland, New Zealand, Denmark, Luxembourg, Ireland, Finland, Iceland, Sweden, and Estonia. These countries perform well on indicators of personal and economic freedom, and "full democracies".
A strong electoral constitution system ensures fair and proportional representation, encourages voter participation, and promotes transparency and accountability. It should also be accessible, efficient, and responsive to the needs of the electorate.
Electoral systems vary widely between countries and are defined by their constitutions and electoral laws. Some common variations include the type of elections (single or multiple winners), the division of areas into constituencies, and the use of voting methods such as first-past-the-post, instant runoff voting, or ranked-choice voting.
Each country has its own unique electoral system, often a variation of proportional representation or a mixed system. For example, the United States Electoral College system involves an exhaustive ballot and contingent elections, while the United Kingdom has traditionally used the First-Past-the-Post system. Other examples include Party Block Voting in Djibouti and Single Transferable Vote in Ireland and Malta.
