Jonah Patel
The right to vote, or suffrage, is a cornerstone of modern democracy. However, throughout history, this right has been denied to various groups, including women, people of colour, and immigrants. The journey towards universal suffrage has been long and arduous, requiring persistent activism and, at times, civil disobedience. In the United States, the 15th and 19th Amendments to the Constitution were pivotal in expanding voting rights to previously excluded groups. The 15th Amendment, adopted in 1870, granted suffrage to African American men, while the 19th Amendment, ratified in 1920, guaranteed women's right to vote. These amendments not only ensured the inclusion of new groups in the democratic process but also empowered Congress to enforce these rights through legislation, such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The struggle for suffrage in the US serves as a reminder of the ongoing need for vigilance and activism to protect and expand democratic rights for all.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Amendment Number | 15th Amendment |
| Year | 1870 |
| Who did it affect? | African American men |
| Amendment Number | 19th Amendment |
| Year | 1920 |
| Who did it affect? | Women |
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What You'll Learn
The 19th Amendment: Women's right to vote
The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1920, was a milestone in American democracy, granting women the right to vote. This amendment was the culmination of a long and arduous journey for women's suffrage, marked by agitation, protests, lobbying, and civil disobedience.
The roots of the women's suffrage movement can be traced back to the mid-19th century, with the emergence of organisations advocating for women's rights. The Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 was a pivotal moment, as it adopted the Declaration of Sentiments, calling for equality between men and women and urging women to secure the vote. Despite these early efforts, it wasn't until 1878 that a formal proposal for women's suffrage was introduced in Congress. However, this initial attempt was rejected in 1887.
The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), formed in 1890, played a crucial role in the following decades. Under the leadership of Carrie Chapman Catt, NAWSA implemented a strategy called "The Winning Plan," which involved a multi-pronged approach at both the state and national levels. They lobbied members of Congress, campaigned publicly to convince male voters and state legislators, and worked to elect congressmen who supported women's suffrage.
As World War I began, NAWSA supported the war effort, arguing that women deserved the right to vote for their patriotic service. The National Woman's Party, led by Alice Paul, also staged marches, demonstrations, and hunger strikes, highlighting the contradiction of fighting for democracy abroad while denying it at home. These efforts shifted public opinion, and in 1918, President Woodrow Wilson announced his support for the suffrage amendment.
Finally, on June 4, 1919, the amendment passed by Congress, and on August 18, 1920, it was ratified when Tennessee became the 36th state to ratify it. This hard-fought victory ensured that women's right to vote was legally guaranteed and protected by the Constitution. However, the struggle for full enfranchisement continued, particularly for African American women and minority women who faced discriminatory state voting laws.
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The 15th Amendment: Voting rights for African Americans
The 15th Amendment to the US Constitution, passed by Congress on February 26, 1869, and ratified in 1870, granted African American men the right to vote. The amendment states that:
> The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
Before the 15th Amendment, only white men were allowed to vote. The 15th Amendment was a significant step towards racial equality in the US, as it prohibited the denial of voting rights based on race or colour. However, despite the 15th Amendment, African Americans continued to face barriers to voting due to discriminatory state laws, poll taxes, literacy tests, intimidation, and the "grandfather clause", which restricted voting rights to those who were allowed to vote before 1867, effectively excluding African Americans.
The push for voting rights for African Americans was a long and challenging journey. During the Reconstruction Era following the Civil War, when the 15th Amendment was ratified, African American men not only gained the right to vote but also won several seats in Congress. Hiram Revels and Blanche Bruce became the first African Americans to be elected to the US Senate, representing Mississippi. However, when Reconstruction ended in 1877 with the withdrawal of federal troops from the former Confederate states, the dominance of the white supremacist wing of the Democratic Party in the South hindered further progress.
It wasn't until the civil rights movement and voting rights initiatives of the 1960s that more substantial changes were made. The Voting Rights Act of 1965, extended and amended several times, abolished remaining deterrents to voting and authorized federal supervision of voter registration where necessary. The 24th Amendment, ratified in 1964, also played a role by prohibiting the use of poll taxes in federal elections. These efforts helped secure voting rights for adult citizens of all races and genders, building upon the foundation laid by the 15th Amendment.
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The 24th Amendment: Poll tax repeal
The 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which was proposed by Congress in 1962 and ratified in 1964, repealed the poll tax, a tax levied on voters in federal elections. The poll tax had been adopted by several Southern states in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the explicit purpose of preventing African Americans and poor whites from voting. Despite the fact that this disproportionately affected African Americans, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of poll taxes in Breedlove v. Suttles in 1937.
The 24th Amendment changed this by prohibiting both Congress and the states from requiring the payment of any tax as a condition for voting in federal elections. This marked a significant shift in voting rights, as it removed economic barriers that had been used to restrict the right to vote to those who could afford it. The amendment was part of a broader movement during the Civil Rights Era to expand voting rights and address the disenfranchisement of African Americans.
The repeal of the poll tax was not immediate across all states. While Arkansas repealed its poll tax in 1964, four other states retained their taxes. These were eventually struck down by the Supreme Court in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections in 1966, which ruled that poll taxes were unconstitutional for any level of election. This decision affirmed that the right to vote could not be denied or abridged based on the failure to pay a poll tax or any other tax.
The 24th Amendment was a significant step towards ensuring that economic status would not be a barrier to voting. It addressed the historical use of poll taxes to disenfranchise African Americans and poor whites, and it empowered citizens by guaranteeing their right to vote regardless of their ability to pay. This amendment, along with others like the 15th Amendment, played a crucial role in expanding voting rights and promoting a more inclusive democracy in the United States.
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The 14th Amendment: Voting rights interpretation
The 14th Amendment to the US Constitution, passed in 1868, granted citizenship and voting rights to formerly enslaved people, establishing birthright citizenship. This amendment also included the Equal Protection Clause, which guarantees all citizens due process and equal treatment under the law.
The Equal Protection Clause has been used in several court cases to protect voting rights. For example, in the 2000 presidential election, the Court determined that the Florida Supreme Court violated the Equal Protection Clause by not mandating uniform standards for counting ballots. The Court ruled that once the right to vote is granted equally, a state cannot later value one person's vote over another through arbitrary and disparate treatment.
The 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause has also been interpreted to require that electoral districts within a redistricting map contain an approximately equal number of people. This interpretation aims to ensure that each person's vote in a congressional election carries roughly the same weight as another's.
Additionally, the 14th Amendment's provision for proportional reduction in a state's representation in the House when it denies the franchise to its qualified male citizens has been used to address specific discriminations based on race, sex, and age.
While the 14th Amendment granted voting rights to many citizens, particularly people of colour who had previously been denied it, it is important to note that discriminatory state voting laws still prevented many women and minorities from voting even after the passage of this amendment.
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The 13th Amendment: Abolition of slavery
The 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, titled "Abolition of Slavery", was passed by Congress on January 31, 1865, and ratified on December 6, 1865. This amendment abolished slavery in the United States, stating that "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction."
The road to the 13th Amendment began with the issue of slavery being implicitly recognised in the original Constitution. Provisions such as the Three-Fifths Compromise (Article I, Section 2, Clause 3) and the Fugitive Slave Clause (Article IV, Section 2) reinforced slavery in the country. In 1863, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, declaring that all persons held as slaves in states rebelling against the Union would be "forever free". However, this proclamation did not end slavery nationwide, as it only applied to areas of the Confederacy in rebellion and not to the border states that remained in the Union.
Recognising the limitations of the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln supported the need for a constitutional amendment to guarantee the abolishment of slavery. The 13th Amendment was passed at the end of the Civil War, before the Southern states had been restored to the Union. While the Senate passed it in April 1864, the House initially did not. It was finally ratified in December 1865, five days after Lincoln's assassination, by Andrew Johnson, the 17th President of the United States.
The 13th Amendment, along with the 14th and 15th Amendments, greatly expanded the civil rights of Americans. It provided a final constitutional solution to the issue of slavery, ensuring that chattel slavery was banned and declared illegal across the nation and its territories. This amendment marked a significant step towards equality and freedom in the United States, addressing the apportionment of the enslaved population and ensuring their freedom.
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Frequently asked questions
The 19th Amendment, ratified on August 18, 1920, granted women the right to vote.
The 15th Amendment, adopted in 1870, granted African American men the right to vote.
Yes, several women's groups formed to fight for suffrage, including the National Woman Suffrage Association, the American Woman Suffrage Association, and the National American Woman Suffrage Association.
Women's suffrage groups used a variety of tactics, including lecturing, writing, marching, lobbying, and civil disobedience. They also pursued a strategy of passing suffrage acts in individual states and challenging male-only voting laws in court.
Yes, the 14th Amendment, which was interpreted by some as implicitly granting women the right to vote, and the 24th Amendment, which repealed poll taxes, impacted voting rights.
