Federal Jurisdiction: Where The Constitution Guides Court Cases

The US Constitution establishes the federal judiciary and outlines the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and inferior federal courts. Article III, Section I of the Constitution states that the judicial power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. This provision sets the foundation for the federal court system and grants Congress the authority to establish lower courts and determine their jurisdiction. The Constitution also guarantees certain rights and protections for individuals accused of wrongdoing, including the right to a fair trial. The Supreme Court, as the highest court in the nation, has original jurisdiction over specific cases, such as disputes between states, and appellate jurisdiction over a wide range of cases involving constitutional and federal law. The lower federal courts, including district courts and courts of appeals, handle the majority of federal cases and appeals, with judges appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate serving for life.

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Federal question jurisdiction

The US Constitution establishes the federal judiciary and outlines the jurisdiction of federal courts. Article III, Section I of the Constitution states that "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish." This article authorises Congress to establish a system of lower courts, which it did through the Judiciary Act of 1789.

For federal question jurisdiction to exist, certain constitutional and statutory requirements must be met. The plaintiff's initial complaint must contain references to the federal question and the federal issue at hand, and this cannot arise in an anticipated defence. The Grable Test, a two-part test established in Grable & Sons Metal Products, Inc. v. Darue Engineering & Manufacturing, is often used to determine federal question jurisdiction. The first part of the test asks whether the claim has a "federal ingredient" under Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution, and the second part assesses whether the claim meets the requirements for 28 USC 1331 federal question jurisdiction.

The Supreme Court has interpreted the constitutional clause broadly, finding that federal courts can hear any case with a federal ingredient. However, the 28 USC 1331 statute has been found to be narrower, with the Supreme Court determining that only suits based on federal law are likely to create federal question jurisdiction. Unlike diversity jurisdiction, federal question jurisdiction does not have an amount in controversy requirement, meaning a federal court can hear a case even if no monetary damages are sought by the plaintiff.

Diversity jurisdiction

For a federal court to have diversity jurisdiction over a lawsuit, two conditions must be met. Firstly, there must be "diversity of citizenship" between the parties, meaning the plaintiffs must be citizens of different states than the defendants. Secondly, the lawsuit's "amount in controversy" must be more than $75,000. If a lawsuit does not meet these two conditions, federal courts will normally lack jurisdiction to hear it unless it involves a federal question, and the lawsuit would need to be heard in a state court instead.

The United States Constitution, in Article III, Section 2, grants Congress the power to permit federal courts to hear diversity cases through legislation authorizing such jurisdiction. Congress has invoked this authority and enacted legislation granting federal courts diversity jurisdiction since the Judiciary Act of 1789. The current diversity jurisdiction provision is codified at 28 U.S.C. § 1332, and grants federal court jurisdiction in all civil actions between citizens of different states and between a citizen of a state and a subject of a foreign state if the amount in controversy exceeds $75,000.

It is important to note that diversity jurisdiction is a form of concurrent jurisdiction, meaning that parties can choose to bring their case to a state court even if the requirements for diversity jurisdiction are met. However, if diversity jurisdiction is available, a defendant in a state court case can unilaterally choose to move the case to federal court through the process of removal. To remove a case to federal court, the defendant must file a notice of removal with both the state court where the case was filed and the federal court to which it will be transferred. This notice of removal must be filed within 30 days of the first removable document.

Additionally, there are certain exceptions to diversity jurisdiction. For example, federal courts do not have the power to issue divorce, alimony, or child custody decrees, as these matters are left to state courts, which have developed expertise in dealing with them. Similarly, diversity jurisdiction does not exist to probate wills or administer decedent's estates directly.

Supreme Court original jurisdiction

The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the country. It was established by Article III of the US Constitution, which also authorized Congress to pass laws establishing a system of lower courts. Article III, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution grants the Supreme Court original jurisdiction over a small class of cases.

The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, and those in which a state is a party. This means that a party may commence litigation in the Supreme Court in the first instance, rather than reaching the high court on appeal. The Court's original jurisdiction is not necessarily exclusive, and in some cases, Congress has granted lower federal courts concurrent jurisdiction. However, when a case is between two or more states, the Supreme Court holds both original and exclusive jurisdiction, and no lower court may hear such cases.

The Supreme Court's original jurisdiction is considered to flow directly from the Constitution and is therefore self-executing without further action by Congress. This was established in Chisholm v. Georgia, where the Court found that its jurisdiction was self-executing and did not require further congressional action to permit the Court to exercise it. The Judiciary Act of 1789 also granted the Court original jurisdiction in suits between a state and citizens of another state, but this did not include actions of assumpsit or prescribe forms of process.

The Supreme Court's original jurisdiction has been exercised in cases such as United States v. Shipp (1906), a criminal case involving a lynching, and Texas v. Pennsylvania (2020), where Texas alleged that four states had violated the Constitution by changing election procedures. However, the Court's original jurisdiction is rarely invoked, with only a small portion of its overall caseload falling under this category.

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Supreme Court appellate jurisdiction

Article III of the US Constitution created the Supreme Court and authorized Congress to pass laws establishing a system of lower courts. There are 13 appellate courts that sit below the US Supreme Court, called US courts of appeals. The appellate court's task is to determine whether the law was applied correctly in the trial court or federal administrative agency.

The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction (the Court can hear the case on appeal) on almost any other case that involves a point of constitutional and/or federal law. Examples include cases in which the United States is a party, cases involving treaties, and cases involving ships on the high seas and navigable waterways (admiralty cases). The Court has discretion to grant or deny a review via a petition for a writ of certiorari.

The Certiorari Act of 1925 gives the Court the discretion to decide whether or not to review a case. In a petition for a writ of certiorari, a party asks the Court to review its case. The Supreme Court agrees to hear about 100-150 of the more than 7,000 cases it is asked to review each year.

Early decisions of the Supreme Court emphasized the mandatory nature of appellate review. Chief Justice John Marshall first implied that the Court is obligated to take and decide cases meeting jurisdictional standards in Marbury v. Madison. The Chief Justice explained in greater detail in Cohens v. Virginia:

> The Judiciary cannot, as the legislature may, avoid a measure because it approaches the confines of the constitution. We cannot pass it by because it is doubtful. With whatever doubts, with whatever difficulties, a case may be attended, we must decide it, if it be brought before us. We have no more right to decline the exercise of jurisdiction which is given, than to usurp that which is not given. The one or the other would be treason to the constitution.

The Supreme Court plays a very important role in the constitutional system of government. As the highest court in the land, it is the court of last resort for those seeking justice. Due to its power of judicial review, it plays an essential role in ensuring that each branch of government recognizes the limits of its own power.

Federal trial courts

The federal judiciary is established by Article III of the US Constitution. Article III, Section I states:

> "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish."

Article III of the Constitution also guarantees every person accused of wrongdoing the right to a fair trial. The Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Amendments to the Constitution provide additional protections for those accused of a crime, including protection against double jeopardy.

The nation's 94 district or trial courts are called US district courts. District courts resolve disputes by determining the facts and applying the law to those facts. Federal trial courts have been established for a few subject-specific areas, including bankruptcy, tax, claims against the federal government, and international trade.

The US Constitution grants Congress the power to establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court. Congress has established the United States district courts, which try most federal cases, and 13 United States courts of appeals, which review appealed district court cases.

The federal courts have jurisdiction over cases that require an interpretation of the Constitution for their correct decision. These cases arise when a litigant claims an invasion of their constitutional rights by the enforcement of an act of public authority, usually an act of Congress or of a state legislature.

In criminal matters, magistrate judges may oversee certain cases, issue search warrants and arrest warrants, conduct initial hearings, set bail, and decide certain motions. In civil cases, magistrates often handle pre-trial motions and discovery.

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