Malcolm Rivera
France's monarchical system has undergone several transformations, notably during the French Revolution (1789-1799) and the subsequent establishment of the First French Republic. On September 3, 1791, the absolute monarchy was forced to limit its power, becoming a constitutional monarchy with the promulgation of the French Constitution of 1791. This short-lived experiment ended on August 10, 1792, with the Insurrection that led to the monarchy's suspension and, later, abolition. The monarchy was restored in 1814, leading to the Bourbon Restoration and subsequent constitutional monarchies under Louis XVIII, Charles X, and Louis-Philippe I, until the French Revolution of 1848.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Duration | 3 September 1791 – 21 September 1792 |
| Type of monarchy | Constitutional |
| Type of constitution | Written |
| Type of government | Constitutional monarchy |
| Monarch | Louis XVI |
| Monarch's power | Limited |
| Monarch's title | King of the French |
| Monarch's role | Head of the assembly |
| Assembly members | 745 |
| Suffrage | Universal male |
| Assembly type | Legislative |
| Assembly head | Monarch |
| Assembly powers | Legislative, executive, and judiciary |
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What You'll Learn
The French Revolution (1789)
The French Revolution, which lasted from 1789 to 1794, was a pivotal event in the nation's history, marking the end of the monarchy and the transition to a new constitutional system. The revolution was sparked by a financial and political crisis in the late 1780s, characterised by economic recession, high unemployment, and food shortages due to poor harvests. The French population had grown significantly between 1715 and 1789, with a tripling of the middle class, yet the benefits of increased prosperity were unevenly distributed, exacerbating social tensions.
The revolution was also influenced by Enlightenment ideas that questioned the existing social institutions and the divine right of kings. Thinkers such as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau critiqued the social inequalities and the concentration of wealth and power among a small elite. The American Revolution and European revolts of the 1780s further inspired public debates and a desire for reform in France.
A key event of the revolution was the storming of the Bastille fortress on July 14, 1789, by a hungry and discontented mob. This event symbolised the uprising against the monarchy and the demand for change. The revolution led to the removal of the French upper classes and the declaration of the Republic of France. King Louis XVI, who had failed to address the nation's financial crisis and the grievances of his people, was forced to agree to a new form of government.
The National Assembly, formed in 1789, transformed the absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime into a constitutional monarchy, with the promulgation of the French Constitution of 1791. This marked a significant shift in power, as France formally became an executive constitutional monarchy. However, this system was short-lived, as the monarchy was abolished in 1792, and the French First Republic was established. The revolution resulted in a massive transfer of power from the Catholic Church to the state, with the church split between those swearing loyalty to the Civil Constitution and those refusing, leading to state-led persecution of "refractory clergy".
The French Revolution of 1789 had far-reaching consequences, not only within France but also internationally. It inspired similar movements for reform and revolution across Europe and marked a turning point in the history of Western political thought, challenging traditional power structures and advocating for liberty, equality, and popular sovereignty.
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The Constitution of 1791
The French Constitution of 1791 was the first written constitution in France, created after the collapse of the absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime. It was promulgated on 3 September 1791 and took effect on 1 October of the same year. This constitution was short-lived, ending with the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the French First Republic after the Insurrection of 10 August 1792.
The Assembly aimed to balance the interests of the people and prevent self-interested rule by allowing the king a suspensive veto. This veto could be overridden by three consecutive legislatures. However, this constitutional monarchy was unacceptable to radical revolutionaries, who sought to end it through the August 10 Insurrection. The franchise was restricted to "active" citizens, defined as those over 25 who paid direct taxes equal to three days' labour.
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The National Assembly
The name 'National Assembly' is often used to refer to any constituent assembly, not only the National Constituent Assembly of the French Revolution but also the Constituent Assembly of 1848 and that of 1945-46. The first National Assembly during the French Revolution began as the Estates-General, formed by representatives of the Third Estate, and transformed into the National Assembly on June 17, 1789. This marked the beginning of the transition from the absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime to a constitutional monarchy.
In July 1791, the National Assembly decreed that Louis XVI would remain king under a constitutional monarchy. However, this decision was unpopular with radical revolutionaries, who wanted to end the monarchy. The constitutional monarchy was short-lived, and on August 10, 1792, the Tuileries Palace was stormed, resulting in the fall of the French monarchy.
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The August 10 Insurrection
In the lead-up to the insurrection, France was facing poor economic conditions, foreign aggression, and fears of foreign invasion. There was also growing dissatisfaction with King Louis XVI, who had unsuccessfully tried to flee the country in June 1791 and was now using his veto power to block radical measures voted on by the Legislative Assembly. On April 20, 1792, France declared war against the King of Bohemia and Hungary (Austria), but the initial battles were a disaster for the French army, which was partially disorganized by mutinies and political change. Prussia joined Austria in an active alliance against France, declaring war on June 13. The blame for these setbacks fell on the King and his ministers.
Tensions escalated further in early August when the Legislative Assembly became deadlocked, unable to decide on a course of action regarding the King, the constitution, the ongoing war, and the political uprisings in Paris. On August 4, the most radical Parisian section, known as "the section of the 300," issued an "ultimatum" to the Legislative Assembly, threatening an uprising if no action was taken by midnight on August 9.
On the night of August 9, radicals seized control of the Paris Commune and instituted an 'Insurrectionary Commune', planning to assault the Tuileries Palace, the official residence of the King. The following day, a mob formed, backed by the political clubs and the new Commune. They were joined by several units of Fédérés (radical republican troops of the National Guard) from Brittany and Marseille. Together, this coalition of soldiers and civilians marched on the Tuileries Palace.
The palace was defended by a garrison of loyalist National Guard, gendarmes, and almost a thousand Swiss Guards (foreign mercenaries hired as the King's bodyguard). However, they were unable to withstand the attack. The insurrection resulted in the slaughter of many Swiss Guards and the fall of the French monarchy. King Louis XVI and his family took shelter with the Legislative Assembly, which was subsequently suspended.
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The French First Republic
France's First Republic was established at the end of the Revolution of 1789, which overthrew the monarchy. On 22 September 1792, the National Convention declared France a republic, marking the beginning of the First Republic. The convention's first act was to officially strip the king of all political powers and put King Louis XVI on trial for treason. He was found guilty and executed on 21 January 1793.
The First Republic was a period of extreme turmoil and upheaval, characterised by mass executions, food riots, and war. The National Convention was made up of three factions: the Girondins, who supported the bourgeoisie; the Montagnards, who favoured a central regime; and the Marais, who were positioned in between the two. The Montagnards' Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal directed the Reign of Terror, a period of mass executions aimed at eliminating counterrevolutionaries.
During this time, France was engaged in wars with Prussia and Austria. In 1798, Napoleon invaded Egypt, successfully defeating British troops. However, France's economic conditions remained poor, and the Directory, established in 1795, was plagued by corruption. Napoleon conspired to overthrow the Directory through a coup in 1799, and the "Constitution de l'an VII" granted him the majority of the power, establishing the Consulate. He was later appointed the first consul for life in 1802. On 18 May 1804, Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor of the French, ending the First Republic and beginning the First Empire.
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Frequently asked questions
Before the constitutional monarchy, France was an absolute monarchy, with the king holding all the power. This system, known as the Ancien Régime, lasted for 948 years until the French Revolution began in 1789.
The transition from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy was initiated by the transformation of the Estates General of 1789 into the National Assembly. This assembly drafted the French Constitution of 1791, which took effect on 1 October of that year, establishing France as an executive constitutional monarchy.
The French Constitution of 1791 was the first written constitution in France and included several revolutionary concepts. It abolished the nobility, declared all men equal before the law, and established a system of separation of powers between the legislature, executive, and judiciary. The king retained a role as head of the assembly but had to share power with its members.
The first constitutional monarchy in France was short-lived, lasting from 3 September 1791 until 21 September 1792. On 10 August 1792, the Tuileries Palace was stormed, leading to the suspension of the monarchy. The newly elected National Convention officially abolished the monarchy on 21 September 1792, proclaiming a republic.
