Omar Bennett
The Spartan Constitution, commonly dated to the early 7th century BC, is the first known constitution that vested supreme power in the hands of an Assembly composed of all citizens, making it the first functioning democracy. The Spartan constitution was unique in its support of a rigidly layered social system and a strong hoplite army. Notably, the Spartans had no historical records, literature, or written laws, and issuance of coinage was forbidden. The Spartan constitution featured a dual monarchy, with two jointly ruling hereditary monarchs from different families who held restricted and mostly ceremonial functions. While the Spartan constitution is admired for its democratic elements, it also had conservative aspects, such as the retention of kings and the Council of Elders, and the exclusion of most inhabitants from citizenship. The decline of Spartan power has been attributed to demographic collapse, military overextension, and the rigid nature of Spartan society, rather than any inherent defect in the constitutional structure.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| No historical records, literature, or written laws | Prohibited by ordinance of Lycurgus, excluding the Great Rhetra |
| No issuance of coinage | Used iron obols to encourage self-sufficiency and discourage hoarding wealth |
| Social roles | Helots performed agricultural labour, Perioeci performed trade and commerce, Spartiates were forbidden from commercial activity and expected to engage in military conflict |
| Citizenship | Most inhabitants were not considered citizens; only those who completed military training and were members of the syssitia were eligible |
| Assembly | All adult male citizens could vote on bills presented by the Council; the Assembly was powerful enough to exile kings |
| Kings | Two jointly ruling hereditary monarchs with restricted, largely ceremonial functions; elected for life from two ancient families |
| Ephors | Five Ephors were chosen by popular election and had more power than anyone in Sparta, but only served one year and could not be re-elected |
| Council of Elders (Gerousia) | 28 citizens over the age of 60, elected for life, along with the two kings |
| Land reform | Land was divided into equal plots to support a man and his family, and citizens were given an estate, making them "Equals" |
| Population | Demographic collapse and military overextension contributed to the end of Spartan power |
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What You'll Learn
- Spartan society was divided into a rigidly layered social system
- The Spartan constitution was the first known to vest supreme power in an Assembly of all citizens
- Spartan kings lost power to the ephors and the Council
- Spartan society was egalitarian, with indifference to economic status
- Spartan society was in demographic decline, with a shrinking population of citizens
Spartan society was divided into a rigidly layered social system
Below the Spartiates were the Perioeci, who carried out most of the trade and commerce since Spartiates were forbidden from engaging in commercial activities. The Perioeci were not considered citizens of Sparta, and their role was primarily focused on economic activities.
The third class was the Helots, who formed the majority of the Spartan population. They were responsible for agricultural labour, spinning, and weaving, and other manual tasks. Helots also served in the Spartan military, making up about 80% of the armed forces. Despite their significant contribution, Helots were not considered citizens and were treated as second-class subjects.
The Mothax class was another group within Spartan society, and they were particularly prominent as military leaders. The exact position of the Mothax in the social hierarchy is not entirely clear, but they seem to have been somewhere between the Perioeci and Helots in terms of social status.
The Spartan constitution, with its unique features, supported this rigidly layered social system. It vested supreme power in the Assembly, which was composed of all citizens. The Assembly had the final say in all matters, making Sparta a democracy. However, the constitution also retained a dual monarchy, with two jointly ruling monarchs from different families. These kings had largely ceremonial functions, and their powers were limited over time, especially in military and foreign affairs.
The Spartan constitution also included a Council of Elders, known as the Gerousia, which consisted of the two kings and 28 elected citizens over the age of 60. This council had significant influence and contributed to the traditionalism and paranoia reflected in the Spartan security state. The constitution's focus on land reform and equality among citizens, at least initially, also played a role in shaping the social dynamics of Spartan society.
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The Spartan constitution was the first known to vest supreme power in an Assembly of all citizens
The Spartan Constitution, commonly dated to the early 7th century BC, is the first known constitution that vested supreme power in an Assembly composed of all citizens. This made Sparta the first known functioning democracy, about 150 years before democracy was introduced in Athens. The Spartan Assembly was powerful enough to exile kings, but it never attained the absolute tyranny of the Athenian Assembly.
The Spartan constitution was unique among the classical Greek city-states in its support for a rigidly layered social system and a strong hoplite army. The Spartan Assembly was composed of all adult male citizens, and while it could only vote on the bills presented by the Council, accounts of lively debates suggest that the Spartan Assembly enjoyed very real powers. The Assembly elected the ephors every year, and members of the Gerousia whenever there were vacancies. The ephors, chosen by popular election from the whole body of citizens, represented a democratic element in the constitution. After the ephors were introduced, they, together with the two kings, were the executive branch of the state.
The Spartan constitution was also the first to introduce a land reform that divided land equally among citizens. The land was divided into equal plots of sufficient size to support a man and his family, and each citizen was given a plot, or estate – a kleros. Henceforth, the Spartans called themselves equals, or Peers – because they were equal not only in rights but also in wealth.
Sparta had a bicameral legislature, divided into the Assembly and the Council of Elders (Gerousia). While the Assembly was made up of all citizens, the Gerousia was composed of the two kings and 28 elected citizens over the age of 60. The members of the Gerousia held their positions for life, making the council a conservative and cautious body. While many ancient philosophers praised the moderating influence of this body, most modern scholars view it as a non-democratic element in the Spartan constitution.
The Spartan constitution was not without its shortcomings. The rigid nature of Spartan society, the paranoia reflected in the Spartan security state, and the traditionalism of the Council may have contributed to the downfall of Spartan influence after the Battle of Leuctra in 371 B.C. The Spartan Assembly has also been criticised as a body of dumb, illiterate automatons, dismissed as a rubber stamp for the decisions of the Kings, Gerousia, and ephors.
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Spartan kings lost power to the ephors and the Council
The Spartan constitution, commonly dated to the early 7th century BC, was the first known constitution that vested supreme power in an Assembly composed of all citizens. This made Sparta the first known functioning democracy. The Spartan constitution gave power to an Assembly of all citizens and included a redistribution of land. The land was divided into equal plots, and each citizen was given a plot or estate, known as a kleros.
The Spartan constitution featured a dual monarchy, with two jointly ruling hereditary monarchs from different families. The two kings, however, had largely ceremonial functions, and the kings lost power to the ephors and the Council. The ephors were chosen by popular election and represented a democratic element in the constitution. They had more power than anyone in Sparta, and together with the two kings, they formed the executive branch of the state. The ephors had the power to accompany the king on military campaigns and gained control over declaring war and foreign policy.
The Spartan kings gradually became figureheads, especially when they were away on military expeditions. They lost power to the ephors and the Council due to security concerns and the fear that a king could make secret deals with enemies or get entangled in foreign schemes detrimental to Sparta. The Spartan constitution thus evolved to limit the power of the kings and prevent the centralisation of authority in a single individual.
While the kings had restricted functions, the ephors themselves had limitations on their powers due to their short one-year tenure, during which they could not be re-elected. This prevented the abuse of power and ensured that the ephors did not conflict with established powers in the state. The Spartan constitution, therefore, distributed power among various institutions and individuals, including the Assembly, the Council, the ephors, and the kings, creating a balanced and mixed government.
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Spartan society was egalitarian, with indifference to economic status
Spartan society was theoretically egalitarian, but only within a small segment of its population. The Spartan constitution, commonly dated to the early 7th century BC, was the first known constitution that vested supreme power in the hands of an Assembly composed of all its citizens. This made Sparta the first known functioning democracy, about 150 years before the introduction of democracy in Athens. The Spartan Assembly was powerful enough to exile kings, but it never attained the absolute tyranny of the Athenian Assembly.
Sparta was unique among ancient Greek societies for its social system, which was supposedly introduced by the semi-mythical legislator Lycurgus. Lycurgus's laws configured Spartan society to maximize military proficiency, focusing all social institutions on military training and physical development. The Spartan society was highly regimented, with a clearly delineated class system. Its inhabitants were classified as Spartiates (citizens with full rights), Mothakes (non-Spartan, free men raised as Spartans), Perioikoi (free, but non-citizen inhabitants), and Helots (state-owned serfs, part of the enslaved non-Spartan, local population). Spartiate men underwent the rigorous agoge training regimen, and Spartan phalanx brigades were widely considered to be among the best in battle.
Spartan society was egalitarian in the sense that all citizens were considered equals, or "Homoioi", which translates as "those who are alike". However, this equality was limited to male citizens who had undergone the agoge training and earned their citizenship. To become a citizen, one had to be able to trace their lineage to the founders of the city, undergo the agoge, and produce enough corn to sustain their status. Citizenship was therefore exclusive to a small segment of Spartan society.
Spartan women enjoyed considerably more rights than women in other parts of classical antiquity. They were the only Greek women to hold property rights, and they were required to practice sports before marriage. Although they had no formal political rights, they were expected to speak their minds boldly, and their opinions were heard. Spartan girls were fed the same food as their brothers and were not confined to their homes or prevented from exercising. They were also married later than women in other Greek cities, which improved their health and increased their life expectancy.
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Spartan society was in demographic decline, with a shrinking population of citizens
Spartan society was rigidly hierarchical, with a strong military focus. Spartiate-class citizens were expected to be supported by their kleroi (allotments of land) and helots (state-owned serfs), and to do no work except that related to military conflict. To be considered a Spartan citizen in good standing, one had to maintain their fighting skills, show bravery in battle, ensure their farms were productive, be married, and have healthy children. As Spartan citizens were expected to be soldiers first and foremost, the constant warfare of the 5th and 4th centuries BC against various enemies, including the Persians, Athenians, and Thebans, took a heavy toll on the citizen population.
The Spartan state was also unique among the Greek city-states in that it prohibited the keeping of historical records, literature, or written laws. This prohibition was attributed to the mythical figure of Lycurgus, the legendary lawgiver who developed the Spartan constitution. As a result of this prohibition, our understanding of Spartan society and its constitution is based primarily on the writings of ancient Greek historians such as Xenophon and Plutarch, who described Spartan institutions, customs, and practices.
The Spartan constitution was also notable for its dual monarchy, with two jointly ruling hereditary monarchs from different families holding restricted and mostly ceremonial functions. In later years, the system evolved so that one king was responsible for domestic matters, while the other typically led military expeditions. The kings derived their legitimacy from being accompanied on campaigns by two ephors, or officials, who were chosen by popular election from among the citizens and served for a single year. Over time, the ephors gained significant powers at the expense of the kings, including the power to declare war and control foreign policy.
The shrinking population of Spartan citizens, combined with their rule over the helots, who made up 90% of the state's residents, contributed to the decline of Spartan influence after the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC. The rigid nature of Spartan society, the paranoia reflected in its security state, and the traditionalism of its Council, which was unwilling to extend citizenship to the helots, may have also contributed to its downfall.
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Frequently asked questions
The Spartan Constitution was the first known constitution that vested supreme power in the hands of an Assembly composed of all citizens, making it the first functioning democracy. It also supported a rigidly layered social system and a strong hoplite army.
The Spartan Constitution was developed by Lycurgus, and included a redistribution of land, giving each citizen a plot of equal size. It also introduced a dual monarchy, with two jointly ruling hereditary monarchs from different families, who had largely ceremonial functions.
The Spartan Constitution did not have any historical records, literature, or written laws, which were expressly prohibited by an ordinance of Lycurgus. Issuance of coinage was also forbidden. The Spartan Constitution also retained a rigid social structure, with most inhabitants of Sparta not considered citizens.
The end of Spartan power was likely due to a combination of demographic collapse and overextension in foreign and military ventures. The constant warfare of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. depleted the Spartan hoplite infantry, and the population of Spartan citizens shrunk. Additionally, the rigid nature of Spartan society, the paranoia of the Spartan security state, and the traditionalism of the Council may have contributed to the decline.
