Founding Fathers' Constitutional Conundrum

In 1787, 55 delegates met in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, the nation's first constitution. The Articles of Confederation had created a weak central government, consisting of a single-house Congress, in which each state had one vote. The delegates debated representation in Congress, slavery, and the new executive branch. The Virginia Plan, drafted by James Madison, proposed a bicameral legislature with three branches of government: legislative, executive, and judicial. The delegates from smaller states objected to this, arguing for equal representation in Congress. This led to the Great Compromise, or Connecticut Compromise, which established equal representation in the Senate and proportional representation in the House of Representatives. The delegates also debated the role of the president, with some fearing the reinstitution of a monarchy. They eventually agreed on a four-year term with no limit on reelection.

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Delegates debated the powers of the executive branch and presidency

The delegates to the Constitutional Convention in 1787 debated the powers of the executive branch and presidency, specifically addressing the manner of electing the executive and the president's term limits. Some delegates favoured a plural executive, fearing that a single executive would lead to the reinstitution of monarchy. However, the convention ultimately agreed on a single executive, with the president as the head.

The Federalists, who supported a strong central government, argued for a separate president with executive powers to enforce federal laws and conduct foreign policy effectively. They believed the president would be accountable to the people and Congress, and that the office's powers were limited and checked by the legislative and judicial branches. In contrast, the Antifederalists feared that the president would become an elected monarch, with cabals ensuring re-election and abusing the presidential veto power.

The delegates debated how the president should be elected and for how long they should hold office. Some wanted the president to be elected by Congress for a long term but be ineligible for re-election. Others preferred direct election by the people for a shorter term with no term limits. A compromise was eventually reached, establishing a four-year term for the president, with no restriction on re-election. This compromise aimed to balance the concerns of both sides.

The question of representation in Congress was also a significant issue. The Virginia Plan, drafted by James Madison, proposed a bicameral national legislature with two houses, proportional to the size of each state. However, delegates from smaller states objected and insisted on preserving the equal vote they had under the Articles of Confederation. This dispute was resolved through the "Great Compromise" or "Connecticut Compromise," which provided for equal representation in the Senate and proportional representation in the House of Representatives.

The Virginia Plan proposed a bicameral legislature, dividing opinion

In 1787, 55 delegates convened in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, the nation's first constitution. The Virginia Plan, drafted by James Madison and Edmund Randolph, proposed a bicameral legislature, consisting of two houses, with "rights of suffrage" in both houses proportional to the size of the state. This idea of proportional representation divided opinion, with delegates from smaller states objecting to the proposal.

The smaller states had enjoyed equal votes under the Articles of Confederation, and they wanted to preserve this equality. New Jersey's William Paterson stated, "A confederacy supposes sovereignty in the members composing it, and sovereignty supposes equality." The delegates from larger states, however, argued that their greater contribution to the nation's finances and population warranted more representation in the legislature.

The debate over representation in Congress was heated, with the smaller states threatening to unravel the proceedings. A compromise was needed to resolve the dispute. The convention appointed a ""Grand Committee"" to find a solution, and they reported back with a proposal: a mixed representation plan. This plan, known as the "Great Compromise" or the "Connecticut Compromise", provided for equal votes for each state in the Senate and proportional representation in the House of Representatives based on the population of each state.

The compromise was a creative solution to a challenging issue, and it played a crucial role in shaping the U.S. Constitution. It addressed the concerns of both larger and smaller states, ensuring that all states had a voice in the Senate while also reflecting the varying populations across the nation in the House of Representatives. This compromise was a significant step forward in the creation of a governing document that has endured for over 200 years.

The question of slavery and slave imports was contentious

The delegates from the smaller states insisted on preserving the equal vote they had enjoyed under the Articles of Confederation. They argued that sovereignty supposed equality. On June 11, the delegates voted to adopt proportional representation in the House of Representatives based on the "whole number of white and other free Citizens," and "three-fifths of all other persons," meaning enslaved African Americans.

Connecticut's Roger Sherman, supported by Oliver Ellsworth, moved that states have equal suffrage in the Senate. Sherman stated that "everything depended on this." The smaller states would never agree to the plan on any other principle than an equality of suffrage in the Senate. The motion was defeated by a single vote. The small-state delegates continued to protest proportional representation in the Senate, threatening to unravel the proceedings.

A compromise was eventually reached, known as the "Great Compromise" or the "Connecticut Compromise." This plan provided for equal representation in the Senate and proportional representation in the House of Representatives. The compromise resolved the most controversial aspect of the drafting of the Constitution.

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The Revolutionary War debt and Britain's reaction caused issues

The Revolutionary War, which ended in 1783, left the newly independent nation with a large debt. The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which formally ended the war, stipulated that debts owed by Americans to British subjects were to be honoured. However, the weak central government under the Articles of Confederation struggled to enforce this, with many states blocking the treaty's enforcement.

Britain was angered by the lack of repayment, and refused to honour the treaty, refusing to vacate military forts on US territory. British refusal to leave these forts was a source of tension and a reminder of Britain's ongoing influence in the newly independent nation.

The US Congress lacked the authority to regulate commerce, which meant it was unable to effectively protect American trade interests against foreign powers, including Britain. British traders flooded the US markets with goods, which damaged American importers and manufacturers.

The delegates to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 recognised the defects of the Articles of Confederation, and the need for a stronger central government. The Virginia Plan, drafted by James Madison, proposed a complete overhaul of the government, with three separate branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislative branch would consist of two houses, with the second house elected by the first from a list created by state legislatures.

The delegates debated the representation in Congress, with small-state delegates insisting on preserving the equal vote they enjoyed under the Articles of Confederation. The larger states, meanwhile, argued that their greater contribution to the nation's finances entitled them to greater representation. Eventually, the delegates adopted a mixed-representation plan, with equal votes in the Senate and proportional representation in the House of Representatives.

The Articles of Confederation gave Congress little authority

The Articles of Confederation, the nation's first constitution, created a confederation of states, with each state retaining "its sovereignty, freedom, and independence". The Articles gave Congress little authority, which led to a weak central government. This weakness was evident in several ways.

Firstly, Congress lacked the authority to regulate commerce, which made it difficult to protect or standardise trade between foreign nations and the various states. In 1784, Congress requested that the states grant it limited power over commerce, but many states did not comply. This issue was further exacerbated by the states' own attempts to impose import duties on goods from other states, disrupting intrastate trade.

Secondly, the federal government faced challenges in conducting foreign policy due to its inability to pass or enforce laws that individual states found counter to their interests. For example, the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the American War of Independence, included provisions that were unpopular with many states, and they blocked their enforcement. This led to Britain's refusal to vacate military forts in US territory and the flooding of US markets with British goods, which harmed American importers and manufacturers.

Thirdly, the Articles of Confederation gave each state a single vote in Congress, which led to issues when a quorum of nine states was required for Congress to ratify the Treaty of Paris. Throughout December 1783, there were scarcely enough congressmen present to reach a quorum, highlighting the lack of authority and effectiveness of the central government.

Additionally, the weakness of Congress encouraged many delegates to focus more on politics in their home states and their personal affairs rather than on the nation's legislative body. This further contributed to the ineffectiveness of the central government and its inability to address pressing issues, such as the national debt.

Finally, the Articles of Confederation did not provide for an executive branch, which led to considerable paperwork bogging down important business. This prompted legislators to establish an executive branch to deal with routine matters, recognising the need for a separation of powers and a stronger central government.

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