Roosevelt's Diplomacy: A Progressive Foreign Policy

Theodore Roosevelt's diplomacy, also known as big stick diplomacy, was a political approach that aimed to increase the influence and prestige of the United States on the world stage. Roosevelt's diplomatic maxim was to speak softly and carry a big stick, which meant negotiating peacefully while also having the military strength to enforce his demands if needed. This approach was influenced by Roosevelt's belief that the exportation of American values and ideals would have a positive impact on the world, as well as his personal connections to foreign bondholders. During his presidency, Roosevelt acted aggressively in foreign affairs, often without the support or consent of Congress, and was responsible for initiatives such as the establishment of the Panama Canal and the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, which asserted U.S. dominance in Latin America and the Caribbean.

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'Speak softly and carry a big stick'

Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th President of the United States, is known for popularising the ""big stick" ideology, also known as the "big stick diplomacy", "big stick philosophy", or "big stick policy". The term "big stick" is derived from the phrase, "speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far", which Roosevelt claimed was a West African proverb, although there is little evidence to support this.

The "big stick" ideology refers to the notion of negotiating peacefully while also having the strength to take action if needed. This approach ties in with the idea of Realpolitik, which implies the pursuit of political power, resembling Machiavellian ideals. Roosevelt's diplomatic maxim was to "speak softly and carry a big stick", and he maintained that a chief executive must be willing to use force when necessary while also practising the art of persuasion.

Roosevelt described his style of foreign policy as "the exercise of intelligent forethought and of decisive action sufficiently far in advance of any likely crisis". He believed that the United States should possess a serious military capability that would force adversaries to pay close attention. This meant building a world-class navy, as Roosevelt never had a large army at his disposal until the 1900s. During his presidency, the US added eleven new battleships and almost doubled the size of its navy. Roosevelt was intent on "tailoring policy to power", and he rejected the idea that conflicts of national interest could be settled through goodwill.

Roosevelt's "big stick" diplomacy was particularly evident in Latin America and the Caribbean, where he took an assertive approach. He was concerned that a crisis between Venezuela and its European creditors could spark an invasion of that nation by European powers, and he felt aggrieved by their actions. He demanded that they agree to arbitration to resolve the dispute, and he stationed naval forces in Cuba to ensure "the respect of the Monroe Doctrine". Roosevelt's declaration was the first of many presidential decrees in the 20th century that were never ratified.

The "big stick" ideology was also applied in the pursuit of building a canal across Central America, which became known as the Panama Canal. The United States pressured the Nicaraguan and Panamanian governments for approval of the canal, and the process of building the canal generated advances in US technology and engineering skills. The Panama Canal Zone also became a major staging area for American military forces, making the United States the dominant military power in Central America.

Panama Canal

Theodore Roosevelt's diplomacy was characterised by his "big stick ideology", which he summarised as "speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far". This meant negotiating peacefully, but also having military strength in case things went wrong.

Roosevelt's approach to the Panama Canal is a good example of his "big stick diplomacy". The construction of the Panama Canal was a priority for Roosevelt, who wanted to increase the influence and prestige of the United States on the world stage and make the country a global power.

The idea of a canal across Central America had been around since the 1800s, when American and British leaders and businessmen wanted to ship goods quickly and cheaply between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. In 1850, the United States and Great Britain negotiated the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty to rein in rivalry over a proposed canal through the Central American Republic of Nicaragua. However, the Anglo-American canal never went beyond the planning stages.

In 1880, French entrepreneur Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had previously built the Suez Canal, began excavating a sea-level canal in Panama, then a province of Colombia. However, this attempt was unsuccessful due to severe underestimation of the difficulties in excavating the rugged terrain, heavy personnel losses to tropical diseases, and increasing difficulties in raising finances. The French company collapsed in 1889, followed by a political scandal surrounding alleged corruption in the French government.

In the late 1890s, interest in a U.S.-led canal effort developed, and it was considered a priority by President Roosevelt. Shortly after ascending to the presidency, Roosevelt spoke of the Panama Canal in a speech to Congress, saying, "No single great material work which remains to be undertaken on this continent, is as of such consequence to the American people."

In 1901, Secretary of State John Hay pressed the Nicaraguan Government for approval of a canal. However, the U.S. Senate voted in favour of building the canal through Panama in 1902. The United States then began negotiating a Panama treaty with Colombia. Roosevelt gained Congressional support to buy the French canal concession and equipment, despite a longstanding preference amongst political leaders and the public for the Nicaragua route. After encountering resistance from the Colombian government to what they considered unfair terms, Roosevelt gave his support to a group of Panamanians seeking to secede from Colombia. He then dispatched U.S. warships to Panama City and Colón to support Panamanian independence, which was declared on 3 November 1903. The newly declared Republic of Panama immediately named Philippe Bunau-Varilla, a French engineer who had been involved in the earlier de Lesseps canal attempt, as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. Bunau-Varilla negotiated the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903, which provided the United States with a 10-mile-wide strip of land for the canal, a one-time $10 million payment to Panama, and an annual annuity of $250,000. The United States also agreed to guarantee the independence of Panama.

The construction of the Panama Canal began in 1904 and was completed in 1914. Nearly 30,000 workers labored ten-hour days for ten years to build the $400-million canal. During this time, American officials were able to eradicate Yellow Fever, which had previously ravaged large numbers of canal workers. The building of the canal generated advances in U.S. technology and engineering skills. The Panama Canal Zone also became a major staging area for American military forces, making the United States the dominant military power in Central America. Once operational, the Panama Canal shortened the voyage from San Francisco to New York by more than 8,000 miles.

Latin America

Roosevelt's Corollary was applied in the Dominican Republic (then known as Santo Domingo), where European investors had pressured their governments to collect debts from the country. In response, Roosevelt ordered an American collector to assume control of the Dominican customs houses and collect duties to avoid possible European military action. This intervention established the United States as the "policeman" of the Western Hemisphere, a role that eventually created resentment in Latin America.

Another notable instance of Roosevelt's diplomacy in Latin America was his support for Panama's independence from Colombia in 1903. At the time, the United States was seeking to acquire land in Panama to build the Panama Canal, which would provide a strategic waterway between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Despite Colombia's congress rejecting the terms of the lease, Roosevelt sided with Panama, and shortly after its independence, the United States signed a lease for the land. This intervention in the affairs of a sovereign Latin American nation marked a more active role for the United States in the region.

Roosevelt's precedent of intervening in Latin America set a standard for future US presidents, leading to a form of economic colonialism in the region. While Roosevelt himself did not use the corollary to take military action in Latin America, his policy justified later US interventions in Cuba, Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic during the 20th century.

In summary, Theodore Roosevelt's diplomacy in Latin America was characterised by his expansion of the Monroe Doctrine, his support for Panama's independence, and his interventions in the region's economic affairs. These actions reflected his belief in the United States' global role and responsibility, shaping the country's relationship with Latin America and its position on the world stage.

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Monroe Doctrine

Theodore Roosevelt's diplomatic approach, also known as "big stick ideology," was characterised by the maxim "speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far." This approach entailed negotiating peacefully while also demonstrating military strength as a deterrent. Roosevelt sought to increase the influence and prestige of the United States on the global stage, promoting the exportation of American values and ideals.

Now, let's focus on the Monroe Doctrine and how it relates to Roosevelt's diplomacy:

The Monroe Doctrine, articulated by President James Monroe in 1823, established two separate spheres of influence: the Americas and Europe. This doctrine proclaimed the Western Hemisphere as the United States' sphere of interest and warned European powers against interfering in the affairs of the newly independent Latin American states or potential United States territories. The doctrine's key concepts were disentanglement from European affairs, defence of neutral rights, non-colonization, and non-intervention.

The Monroe Doctrine was invoked in 1865 when the US supported Mexican President Benito Juárez in his revolt against Emperor Maximilian, who had been placed by the French government. In 1902-1903, the Venezuela crisis demonstrated the US's willingness to use its naval power to intervene and stabilise the economic affairs of small states in the Caribbean and Central America if they were unable to repay international debts, thus preventing European intervention. This led to Roosevelt's Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904, where he proclaimed the right of the US to exercise "international police power" to curb "chronic wrongdoing" in Latin America. Roosevelt's Corollary strengthened the Monroe Doctrine, justifying US intervention in other countries of the Western Hemisphere to promote stability and prevent European involvement.

The Monroe Doctrine continued to be invoked and reinterpreted over the years, such as in 1933 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who affirmed the doctrine's new interpretation through the co-founding of the Organization of American States. In 1962, President John F. Kennedy symbolically invoked the doctrine when the Soviet Union began constructing missile-launching sites in Cuba, leading to a naval and air quarantine around the island with the support of the Organization of American States.

Naval strength

Theodore Roosevelt's diplomacy, also known as "big stick diplomacy", was a political approach that involved negotiating peacefully while also having the military strength to enforce demands if needed. Roosevelt believed that a powerful Navy was an essential component of national defence and sought to assemble a strong and reliable defence for the United States to avoid conflicts with enemies who might prey on weakness.

Roosevelt inherited an empire-in-the-making when he assumed office in 1901. After the Spanish-American War in 1898, the United States had acquired an overseas empire, with cessions of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam from Spain, as well as a protectorate over Cuba and the annexation of Hawaii. Roosevelt wanted to increase the influence and prestige of the United States on the world stage and make the country a global power. He believed that the exportation of American values and ideals would have a positive effect on the world.

Roosevelt's first foray into naval affairs was his 1882 book, "The Naval War of 1812", which emphasised the importance of naval preparedness. He understood that naval force was critical to his diplomatic approach, which involved three principles:

• Speak softly and carry a big stick: Roosevelt avoided bluster and preferred to use a soft tone in negotiations, but he also wanted foreign powers to understand that his administration's policies were deliberate and would be backed up with deeds as well as words.
• Match geopolitical objectives with naval means: Roosevelt deployed the Navy whenever he perceived a threat to US interests, as he believed that the Navy's mobility, versatility, and lethality could be adapted to the scope of the situation.
• Armed diplomacy: Roosevelt used the Navy to promote peace through deterrence, ensuring that the Navy was strong enough to prevent war or succeed if one broke out.

Roosevelt's use of naval strength can be seen in several instances, including:

• Venezuela: In 1902, Germany and Britain sent ships to blockade Venezuela's coastline due to unpaid debts. Roosevelt sent a naval ""show of strength"" to deter the Germans from overthrowing the Venezuelan government and demanded arbitration to resolve the dispute.
• Panama: In 1903, Roosevelt used naval force to prevent Colombian troops from landing in Panama after the province declared independence. This support for Panamanian independence was part of his desire to build a canal connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, which became the Panama Canal.
• Japan: Roosevelt initially tried to be polite to the Japanese government, but when they mistook his kindness for fear, he deployed the Great White Fleet to assert US power.
• Cuba: Roosevelt stationed naval forces in Cuba to ensure compliance with the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that Europeans should not increase their influence or recolonize any part of the Western Hemisphere.

Through these actions, Roosevelt transformed the United States Navy into one of the largest and most powerful naval forces in the world, securing America's interests in the Pacific and beyond.

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