Diplomacy's Ancient Origins: Rediscovering Earliest Diplomatic Endeavors

Diplomacy is the main instrument of foreign policy, representing a state's broader goals and strategies in its interactions with the rest of the world. The earliest diplomats emerged from the need to convey messages between societies safely and reliably. The term diplomacy is derived from the 18th-century French term diplomate, based on the ancient Greek diploma, which means an object folded in two. This reflected the practice of sovereigns providing a folded document to confer privileges, such as permits to travel. The earliest known diplomatic records include the Amarna letters between the pharaohs of Egypt and the Amurru rulers of Canaan in the 14th century BC, and the Ishango bone from 20,000 BC, found in the present-day Congo, which is one of the earliest records of writing. Ancient India also had a long tradition of diplomacy, with the oldest treatise on statecraft and diplomacy, Arthashastra, attributed to Kautilya, who was the principal adviser to the founder of the Maurya dynasty in the 3rd century BC.

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Ancient Greek city-states and the first diplomats

Ancient Greece, located in southeast Europe, served as a bridge between Asia and Europe. The country consisted of over 1,000 city-states (polis) that were independent yet interdependent, creating a complex but fertile ground for diplomacy. The earliest evidence of Greek diplomacy can be found in its literature, notably in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. Other early traces of interstate relations include the Olympic Games of 776 BCE and the amphictyonic leagues of the 6th century BCE, which maintained interstate assemblies with extraterritorial rights and permanent secretariats.

The ancient Greek city-states occasionally dispatched envoys to negotiate specific issues such as war and peace or commercial relations. These envoys were chosen for their oratorical skills and were received with grandeur and ceremony. They addressed public gatherings in the receiving city-state, using rhetoric and the arts of persuasion to sway foreign assemblies. Treaties were inscribed on stone or bronze pillars (stelai) and placed in temples or other sacred places. However, this openness created a weakness in Greek diplomacy, as envoys were more focused on advocating to the wider population than negotiating with the opposing side.

Proxeny, or proxenia in Greek, refers to the highly fragmented political geography of the ancient Greek world and the dense interconnections between its states. Proxenos, or Greek consular agents, were citizens of the host city who had friendly relations with another city, often through familial ties. They fulfilled some functions of modern diplomatic representatives, acting as intermediaries between Greek city-states. Proxenos initially represented one Greek city-state in another, but eventually, they expanded their reach, as indicated by Herodotus' mention of Greek consuls in Egypt around 550 BCE.

Heralds, referenced in prehistory, were also considered the first diplomats. They served as channels of contact in wartime due to their inviolability and travelled alone to arrange safe passage for envoys. Envoys, on the other hand, journeyed in small groups to ensure mutual loyalty and were typically older, politically prominent figures.

The Greeks developed archives, a diplomatic vocabulary, and principles of international conduct that laid the foundation for international law. Their envoys enjoyed diplomatic immunity for their official correspondence and personal property. Greek diplomacy took various forms, including truces, neutrality, commercial conventions, conferences, treaties, and alliances. For instance, in the 4th century BCE, there were eight Greco-Persian congresses within a 25-year period, where even the smallest states had a voice.

Overall, ancient Greek diplomacy was one of the most open and advanced forms of diplomacy in the world at the time, shaping the evolution of diplomatic practices and international relations.

Early societies and their attributes of states

Early societies, even before they were considered states, had some form of diplomacy. Diplomacy, in its most basic form, is the communication between representatives of states, intergovernmental, or non-governmental institutions to influence events in the international system.

Some of the earliest records of diplomacy can be traced back to the ancient Egyptians, with traces of their diplomatic practices dating back to the 14th century BCE. The Amarna letters, written between the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty of Egypt and the Amurru rulers of Canaan, are considered some of the earliest-known diplomatic records. Ancient Egyptian pharaohs also frequently used diplomatic marriages to amplify their political power and form alliances with other kingdoms.

In ancient Greece, the city-state of Athens developed a system of diplomacy called the "Megarian decree," which used economic sanctions as a foreign policy tool. The ancient Greek city-states also dispatched envoys to negotiate specific issues, such as war, peace, and commercial relations.

Ancient India, with its kingdoms and dynasties, also had a long tradition of diplomacy. The oldest treatise on statecraft and diplomacy, Arthashastra, is attributed to Kautilya, the principal adviser to Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya dynasty, which ruled in the 3rd century BCE.

In addition to these examples, there is evidence of early diplomacy in prehistoric times. For instance, the exchange of gifts between groups and tribes, as documented by anthropologists Bronisław Malinowski and Marcel Mauss, helped our predecessors develop links with their neighbours and other tribes. The use of art and abstract thinking in prehistoric times may have also played a role in setting the stage for proto-diplomacy.

Early societies, even without the formal structures of modern states, had attributes of states and engaged in diplomatic practices that helped shape intertribal relations and international law.

The role of women as envoys

The evolution of diplomacy as a concept can be traced back to the ancient world, with some of the earliest known diplomatic records being the Amarna letters written between the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty of Egypt and the Amurru rulers of Canaan during the 14th century BCE. Ancient India also had a long tradition of diplomacy, with the oldest treatise on statecraft and diplomacy, Arthashastra, attributed to Kautilya, who was an adviser to the founder of the Maurya dynasty in the 3rd century BCE. The ancient Greek city-states also dispatched envoys to negotiate specific issues such as war, peace, and trade, although they did not have diplomatic representatives permanently posted in each other's territories.

The role of women in early diplomacy was often informal, and their involvement was facilitated by their ties to royal courts rather than their gender. In Renaissance Italy, elite women ventured into diplomatic circles, and in Elizabethan England, they influenced formal intelligence and diplomatic endeavours by gathering and distributing news. Similarly, in eighteenth-century France, Madame de Pompadour was one of Louis XV's closest advisors and shaped foreign relations.

Women occasionally served in formal diplomatic roles, and their appointment often carried symbolic significance. Renée du Bec-Crespin, Countess of Guébriant, was formally appointed as an ambassador to Poland in 1645, one of the few women to serve in such a role before the twentieth century. Eugenie Anderson was America's first female ambassador and a pioneering practitioner of "people's diplomacy." Female diplomats have unique access to rural and conservative societies, particularly in parts of the world where gender segregation is prevalent, and can serve as role models for local women.

Women's unpaid labour was also instrumental in maintaining diplomatic relations, as wives of diplomats played a vital role in bridging relations between male members from different diplomatic missions. They were often too busy running large diplomatic households, presiding as hostesses, maintaining influential contacts, and doing volunteer work to pursue their careers. However, the struggle for women to gain access to formal diplomatic roles continued well into the twentieth century in many parts of the world.

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The evolution of the term 'diplomacy'

The evolution of the term diplomacy is a fascinating journey through the ages, from the ancient world to the modern era. The earliest diplomats emerged from the need to convey messages between societies safely and reliably. This crucial role evolved in response to political needs, with envoys dispatched to negotiate specific issues like war, peace, or trade agreements. Ancient civilisations, including the Greek city-states, the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, and the kingdoms of ancient India, engaged in diplomatic practices, often through proxenos or citizens with friendly relations.

The term "diplomacy" itself has an interesting etymology. Derived from the 18th-century French term "diplomate" ("diplomat" or "diplomatist"), it has its roots in the ancient Greek word "diploma," which means "an object folded in two." This reflects the ancient practice of sovereigns providing folded documents to confer official privileges or permits, as envelopes had not yet been invented. The term gradually expanded to encompass all official documents, particularly those containing agreements between governments, thus becoming synonymous with international relations.

The evolution of diplomacy continued as new forms emerged in interactions between the Italian and Ottoman empires. The primary purpose of a diplomat, originally a negotiator, evolved into representing an autonomous state in all aspects of political affairs. The early modern period witnessed a shift in the diplomatic atmosphere, with conformity to Ottoman culture becoming a foundation for diplomatic engagement. This evolution of diplomacy continued, with the Renaissance and post-Renaissance European state system further shaping diplomatic practices.

The 17th century marked a significant development, as modern diplomatic methods, practices, and principles began to take shape in Europe. The start of the 20th century brought further professionalisation to diplomacy, and the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations provided a standardised framework for diplomatic procedures, methods, and conduct, which was adopted by most sovereign states. Today, diplomacy is conducted by accredited officials, such as envoys and ambassadors, through dedicated foreign affairs offices, with a broader scope that includes summit meetings, international conferences, and the work of international civil servants.

The influence of the Ottoman Empire

The term diplomacy refers to the act of communication between representatives of states, intergovernmental, or non-governmental institutions to influence events in the international system. It is the main instrument of foreign policy, which represents a state's broader goals and strategies in its interactions with the rest of the world. The earliest diplomats were a response to the need for a mechanism to convey messages between societies safely and reliably.

• Ambassadors and envoys: The Ottomans exchanged emissaries and ambassadors with other courts. These diplomatic representatives were responsible for establishing and maintaining relations, negotiating treaties, and resolving disputes.
• The Capitulations: The Ottoman Empire granted certain privileges and protections to foreign merchants and states in exchange for economic, military, or political benefits. These agreements, known as capitulations, were crucial in shaping the empire's economic and diplomatic ties.
• Balance of power: The Ottoman Empire was conscious of maintaining a balance of power with its European neighbors, such as the Habsburg and Russian Empires. It often formed alliances or engaged in diplomatic maneuvering to counterbalance rival powers.
• Religious diplomacy: As the seat of the Islamic Caliphate, the Ottoman Empire used religion as a diplomatic tool. It maintained relations with Muslim communities in other states and sought to protect the rights and interests of Muslims living under non-Muslim rule.
• Use of proxies: The Ottoman Empire occasionally supported proxy forces or formed alliances with local powers to achieve its diplomatic goals or expand its influence in a particular region.

The Ottoman Empire's interactions with other empires, such as the Italian and Venetian empires, helped create new forms of diplomacy and statecraft. The powerful political environment of the Ottoman Empire influenced other sovereigns to accommodate themselves diplomatically. The early modern period's diplomatic atmosphere was characterized by conformity to Ottoman culture. The Ottoman Empire's influence extended to Southeast Asia, where it traded arms for pepper and formed alliances with various sultanates. In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire faced internal challenges and lost control over some of its European territories, including Greece, Serbia, and Egypt. In the early 20th century, it allied with the Central Powers in World War I and suffered defeat, leading to the loss of its Arab possessions and its eventual collapse.

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